muntmtttt> 


BUSH-FRUITS 

BY 

F.W.  CAUD 


The  Rural  Science  Series 


HffiiHiii 


Hurai  Science  &>tfi 

L.  H.  BAILEY,  EDITOR 


BUSH-FRUITS 


l&ural 

EDITED  BY  L.  H.  BAILEY 

THE  SOIL.     King. 

THE  SPRAYING  OF  PLANTS.     Lodeman. 

MILK  AND  ITS  PRODUCTS.     Wing.     Enlarged  and  Revised. 

THE  FERTILITY  OF  THE  LAND.     Roberts. 

THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    FRUIT-GROWING.      Bailey.      20th 

Edition,  Revised. 
BUSH-FRUITS.     Card.     Revised. 
FERTILIZERS.     Voorhees.     Revised. 
THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  AGRICULTURE.     Bailey.     Revised. 
IRRIGATION  AND  DRAINAGE.     King. 
THE  FARMSTEAD.     Roberts. 
RURAL  WEALTH  AND  WELFARE.     Fairchild. 
THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  VEGETABLE-GARDENING.     Bailey. 
FARM  POULTRY.     Watson.     Enlarged  and  Revised. 
THE  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS.     Jordan.     Revised. 
THE  FARMER'S  BUSINESS  HANDBOOK.     Roberts. 
THE  DISEASES  OF  ANIMALS.     Mayo. 
THE  HORSE.     Roberts. 
How  TO  CHOOSE  A  FARM.     Hunt. 
FORAGE  CROPS.     Voorhees. 

BACTERIA  IN  RELATION  TO  COUNTRY  LIFE.     Lipman. 
THE  NURSERY-BOOK.     Bailey. 
PLANT-BREEDING.     Bailey  and  Gilbert.     Revised. 
THE  FORCING-BOOK.     Bailey. 

THE  PRUNING-BOOK.  Bailey.  (Now  Rural  Manual  Series.) 
FRUIT-GROWING  IN  ARID  REGIONS.    Paddock  and  Whipple. 
RURAL  HYGIENE.     Ogden. 
DRY-FARMING.     Widtsoe. 
LAW  FOR  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER.     Green. 
FARM  BOYS  AND  GIRLS.     McKeever. 
THE  TRAINING  AND  BREAKING  OF  HORSES.     Harper. 
SHEEP-FARMING  IN  NORTH  AMERICA.     Craig. 
COOPERATION  IN  AGRICULTURE.     Powell. 
THE  FARM  WOODLOT.     Cheyney  and  Wentling. 
HOUSEHOLD  INSECTS.     Herrick. 
CITRUS  FRUITS.     Coit. 
PRINCIPLES  OF  RURAL  CREDITS.     Morman. 
BEEKEEPING.     Phillips. 

SUBTROPICAL  VEGETABLE-GARDENING.     Rolfs. 
TURF  FOR  GOLF  COURSES.     Piper  and  Oakley. 
THE  POTATO.     Gilbert. 
STRAWBERRY  GROWING.     Fletcher. 


Plate  1.     Blackberries  in  bloom. 


BUSH-FRUITS 


BY 
FRED  W.  CAR13 


NEW  AND  REVISED  EDITION 


THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 
1920 

All  rights  reserved 


"COPTKIGHT,  1898 

BY  FRED  W.  CARD 


COPTBIGHT,  1917 

BT  THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

Set  up  and  electrotyped,  October,  1898. 

Reprinted  with  corrections,  1901;  November,  1903, 

and  November,  1907. 


New  and  Revised  Edition,  May,  1917. 


MAJN  LIBRARY-AGRICULTURE 


EXPLANATION 

THE  book  on  Bush-Fruits  was  first  published  in  1898, 
when  the  author,  Fred  W.  Card,  was  professor  of  horti- 
culture in  the  Rhode  Island  College  of  Agriculture  and 
Mechanic  Arts.  He  had  held  a  similar  chair  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Nebraska,  and  as  a  post-graduate  student  in 
Cornell  University  he  had  made  a  special  study  of  these 
fruits  and  the  book  grew  out  of  a  thesis  on  the  subject. 
The  book  is  revised  by  the  author,  now  a  farmer  on  his 
own  farm  in  Pennsylvania,  with  the  purpose  to  make  it 
as  useful  as  possible  to  the  actual  grower  of  the  fruits. 
The  bulletin  literature  of  the  subject  has  also  been  gone 
over  and  assorted.  The  cultural  methods  have  not 
changed  greatly,  however,  and  even  many  of  the  old  va- 
rieties are  still  commercially  important.  The  parts  on 
insects  and  diseases  have  been  revised  by  specialists.  The 
botanical  accounts,  which  were  a  feature  of  the  old  book, 
are  omitted  because  fuller  treatments  are  now  accessible. 
The  author  wishes  to  express  his  special  obligation  to 
members  of  the  staff  of  the  New  York  Agricultural  Ex- 
periment Station  (Geneva),  particularly  to  F.  C.  Stewart 
and  O.  M.  Taylor;  also  to  F.  V.  Coville,  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture,  for  aid  in  the  discussion  of 
the  blueberry.  The  author  now  places  the  book  before 
the  public  in  its  new  dress  as  a  practical  manual  on  the 
usual  growing  and  handling  of  currants,  gooseberries, 
blackberries,  dewberries,  raspberries,  blueberries,  and  a 
few  minor  woody  small-fruits. 

v 

447241 


CONTENTS 


PART  I 

GENERAL   CONSIDERATIONS 
CHAPTER  I 

PAGES 

INTRODUCTORY  DISCUSSION 1-40 

Status  of  bush-fruits  in  the  home-garden  and  in  com- 
mercial culture,  1 — The  location,  4 — The  site  and  the 
soil,  5 — Fertilizers,  8 — Suggestions  on  planting,  9 — • 
Management  of  the  land,  13 — Tillage  tools,  16 — 
Pruning,  17 — Staking  and  trellising,  19 — Winter- 
killing, 20 — Propagation,  26 — Thinning  the  fruit, 
28 — Forcing  bush-fruits,  28 — Suggestions  on  picking, 
29 — Packages  and  marketing,  31 — Cold  storage,  33 — 
Methods  of  crossing  berries,  34. 

PART  II 

THE   BRAMBLES 

CHAPTER  II 

THE  RED  RASPBERRIES 41-59 

The  soil,  41 — The  site  and  exposure,  42 — Fertilizers, 
43 — Propagation,  45 — Planting,  46 — Pollination,  47 
— Tillage,  48 — Pruning,  48 — Autumn  fruiting,  51 — 
Harvesting  and  marketing,  53 — Uses,  53 — Duration 
of  plantations,  54 — Hardiness,  56 — Yields,  57 — Nor- 
mal profits,  58 — Note  on  the  hybrid  reds,  58. 
vii 


Vlll 


Contents 


CHAPTER  III 

BLACK  RASPBERRIES 

Soil  for  black-caps,  60 — Location,  61 — Fertilizers,  62 — 
Propagation,  64 — Planting,  66 — Tillage,  69 — Prun- 
ing, 70— Harvesting,  73 — Methods  of  drying,  76— 
Marketing,  82 — Duration  of  plantations,  82 — 
Clearing  the  ground,  83 — Yields,  84 — Usual  profits, 


PAGES 
60-87 


CHAPTER  IV 

THE  BLACKBERRIES 

Soil,  88— Fertilizers,  89— Propagation,  91— Planting, 
94 — Tillage  and  mulching,  97 — Pruning,  100 — Har- 
vesting and  marketing,  102 — Uses,  103— Lessening 
the  effects  of  drought,  107 — Duration  of  plantations, 
109 — Removing  the  plants,  109 — Hardiness,  110 — 
Yields,  111— Profits,  113— The  evergreen  black- 
berries, 117. 


88-118 


CHAPTER  V 

THE  DEWBERRIES 

Soil,  124— Location,  124— Fertilizers,  124— Propaga- 
tion, 125 — Planting,  125 — Tillage,  126 — Pruning  and 
training,  127 — Harvesting  and  marketing,  129 — 
Duration  of  plantations,  129 — Killing  out  the  patch, 
129— Hardiness,  130— Yield,  130— Profits,  131— The 
western  dewberries,  131. 


119-133 


CHAPTER  VI 

MISCELLANEOUS  BRAMBLES 134-146 

The   Oriental   raspberries,    134 — (The   mayberry,    the 
strawberry-raspberry,    the   wineberry,    the   Chinese 


Contents  ix 

PAGES 

raspberry,  Rubus  xanthocarpus) — Ornamental  species, 
138  (Rubus  odoratus,  R.  parviflorus,  R.  deliciosus, 
R.  cratcegifolius,  R.  arcticus,  R.  phanicolasius,  R. 
spectabilis,  R.  laciniatus,  double  white  and  pink  bram- 
bles, R.  trifidus,  R.  Henryi.) 

CHAPTER  VII 

VARIETIES  OP  RASPBERRIES 147-202 

Black  raspberries,  148 — Recommended  varieties  of 
black-caps,  165 — The  red  and  hybrid  raspberries,  165 
— History  and  future  of  the  red  raspberries,  170 — 
Varieties  of  red  and  hybrid  raspberries,  176 — Recom- 
mended varieties,  202. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

VARIETIES  OF  BLACKBERRIES  AND  DEWBERRIES     . 

The  blackberries,  203 — Botanical  derivation,  204 — His- 
tory and  future  of  the  blackberry,  206 — The  dew- 
berries, 209 — Botanical  derivation,  210 — Cultivated 
varieties  of  blackberries  and  dewberries,  214 — Recom- 
mended varieties,  231. 


203-232 


CHAPTER  IX 
INSECTS  AFFECTING  THE  BRAMBLES 


233-249 


CHAPTER  X 

DISEASES  OF  THE  BRAMBLES  . 


250-262 


x  Contents 

PART  III 

THE   GROSELLES 
CHAPTER  XI 

PAGES 

CURRANTS 263-281 

Soil  and  location,  265 — Fertilizers,  266 — Propagation, 
267 — Planting,  270— Subsequent  tillage,  271— Prun- 
ing, 272 — Gathering  and  marketing,  275 — Uses,  276 
— Duration  of  plantations,  277 — Hardiness,  278 — 
Yield,  279 — Profits,  280 — Black  currants,  281. 

CHAPTER  XII 

GOOSEBERRIES 282-298 

Soil  and  location,  283 — Fertilizers,  284 — Propagation, 
284— Planting,    288— After   treatment,    288— Prun- 
ing, 289— Gathering  and  marketing,  291 — Uses,  293 — 
Duration    of    plantations,    294 — Hardiness,    295— 
Yield,  295— Profits,  296— English  gooseberries,  297, 

CHAPTER  XIII 

VARIETIES  OF  CURRANTS 299-315 

Botanical  derivation,  299 — History  of  the  cultivated 
currant,  302 — Red  and  white  currants,  304 — Euro- 
pean black  currants,  312 — The  golden  or  buffalo  cur- 
rant, 314 — The  American  black  currant,  314 — Recom- 
mended varieties,  315. 

CHAPTER  XIV 

VARIETIES  OF  GOOSEBERRIES 316-333 

Botanical  derivation,  316 — History  and  future,  318 — The 
kinds  of  gooseberries,  321 — Recommended  varieties, 
331 — Ornamental  currants  and  gooseberries,  331. 


Contents  xi 

CHAPTER  XV 

PAGES 

INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  THE  GROSELLES 334-347 

CHAPTER  XVI 
DISEASES  OF  THE  GROSELLES 348-354 

PART  IV 

MISCELLANEOUS   TYPES 

CHAPTER  XVII 
OTHER  SPECIES  OF  BUSH-FRUITS      ...     .     .     .     .     355-395 

INDEX  (page  397) 


PLATES 

I.  Blackberries  in  bloom Frontispiece 

Opposite  page 

II.  Black  raspberries 60 

III.  Evaporating  raspberries 78 

IV.  Loganberries  in  bloom 132 

V.  Raspberries,  Black  Pearl  and  Herbert 186 

VI.  Loganberry  fruit  and  loading  crates 222 

VII.  Snyder  blackberry 228 

VIII.   Enemies  of  brambles .  254 

IX.  One-year  currants 268 

X.  Two-year  currants    .     • 278 

XI.  Two  good  currants 304 

XII.  Two  types  of  gooseberries 318 

XIII.  Gooseberries,  Chautauqua  and  Columbus      ....  322 

XIV.  Industry  gooseberry 324 

XV.  Afflictions  of  groselles 334 

XVI.   Blueberries  366 


Xlll 


BUSH-FRUITS 


BUSH-FRUITS 

PART  I 
GENERAL  CONSIDERATIONS 

CHAPTER  I 
INTRODUCTORY  DISCUSSION 

BUSH-FRUITS  occupy  a  place  of  their  own  in  the  pom- 
ological  field.  They  do  not  meet  the  universal  demand 
that  does  the  strawberry,  and  cannot  be  grown  on  such 
an  extensive  scale  under  most  conditions.  Neither  have 
they  the  stability  and  lasting  qualities  of  the  tree-fruits, 
but  they  fit  into  their  own  place  between  the  two  and  fill 
there  an  important  position. 

Their  place  in  the  home-garden  is  assured  and  needs 
no  comment.  Each  kind  is  a  favorite  of  some  persons, 
and  all  are  relished  by  most  people.  To  the  busy  farmer 
they  offer  a  healthful  and  appetizing  luxury  with  a  mini- 
mum outlay  of  labor.  To  the  business  or  professional 
man  seeking  rest  and  relaxation  in  his  garden,  they  afford 
a  delightful  pastime  as  well.  For  the  additional  attention 
which  he  is  likely  to  give,  they  will  return  increased 
lusciousness  and  beauty,  coupled  with  the  personal  in- 
terest that  accompanies  a  product  of  one's  own  growing. 

In  the  commercial  field,  the  position  of  these  fruits  is 
varied.  The  demand  is  unequal,  the  uses  different,  and 
the  success  attendant  on  their  culture  greatly  dependent 

1 


2^(  Bush-Fruits 

i v    , v  ££°ru 

pp  ^eal.conditions.  The  census  of  1910  shows  a  falling  off 
in:  thV-aerefege  'devoted  to  all  lines  of  small  fruits  in  the 
United  States.  Even  the  strawberry,. which  is  much  more 
largely  grown  than  any  of  the  others,  lost  ground  by  some 
8,000  acres  within  the  previous  decade.  Blackberries 
and  dewberries,  which  are  classed  together,  nearly  held 
their  own.  Raspberries  and  loganberries,  which  are  also 
grouped  under  one  head,  dropped  from  60,916  acres  in 
1899,  to  48,668  acres  in  1909,  the  greatest  decrease  being 
in  the  East  North-Central  division.  A  marked  exception 
to  the  general  decline  is  shown  by  these  two  fruits  in 
the  Mountain  and  Pacific  divisions.  In  the,  latter  the 
acreage  more  than  doubled  within  that  period.  This  is 
probably  due  in  great  part  to  the  introduction  and  ex- 
tensive planting  of  the  loganberry.  Currants  and  goose- 
berries both  lost  heavily  during  this  period. 

Large  areas  of  some  of  the  bush-fruits  are  grown  at 
times,  but  their  more  important  place  is  in  diversified  fruit- 
growing. Under  exceptional  conditions,  with  an  assured 
market  at  hand,  the  growing  of  large  areas  of  a  single 
fruit  may  be  wise,  but  under  normal  conditions  it  is  likely 
to  be  fraught  with  disappointment.  The  production  and 
consumption  of  strawberries  is  nearly  or  quite  as  great 
now  as  ever,  but  the  tendency  is  apparently  away  from 
larger  areas,  the  total  product  being  grown  by  a  much 
larger  number  of  men,  most  of  whom  supply  the  de- 
mands of  their  own  locality,  rather  than  depend  on  the 
wider  wholesale  markets  of  the  country.  This  tendency 
is  doubtless  wise,  for  the  home  market  is  often  the  best. 

Personal  experience  may  serve  as  an  illustration.  Lo- 
cated in  a  general  farming  community,  remote  from  large 


Introductory  Discussion  3 

centers  of  population,  to  market  any  fruit  extensively 
would  mean  shipment  to  distant  points.  This  is  a  con- 
venient outlet  for  surplus,  but  the  net  returns  are  nearly 
always  less  than  those  secured  at  home.  This  home  mar- 
ket never  pays  the  fancy  price  that  the  grower  is  likely  to 
hold  in  his  mind  as  the  ideal  for  his  efforts;  neither  does 
it  expect  to  secure  fruit  at  the  glut  prices  which  often  pre- 
vail in  the  large  markets.  This  market  will  take  what  it 
requires,  at  prices  that  afford  fair  profits  to  the  intelligent 
grower.  It  is  the  part  of  wisdom  to  try  to  meet  the  de- 
mands of  this  home  trade.  This  means  that  the  grower 
should  raise  more  of  some  things,  and  leave  out  other 
things  which  he  would  like  to  grow.  If  he  grows  goose- 
berries, the  home  market  may  not  want  them;  these  must 
be  shipped.  For  strawberries  and  raspberries  the  market 
is  hungry.  He  can  therefore  grow  a  certain  quantity 
at  a  good  profit,  while  to  grow  them  largely  would 
doubtless  prove  unprofitable.  Peaches,  likewise,  are  much 
in  demand.  The  best  trade  is  often  from  the  farmers,  who 
sometimes  come  as  far  as  ten  miles  to  get  the  fruit  and 
take  it  home  with  them.  These  persons  come  to  look  the 
grower's  way  for  such  fruit  as  they  want  whether  he  grows 
it  or  not.  It  is  wise  to  meet  their  demands  more  fully. 

It  will  readily  be  seen  that  the  conditions  prevailing 
at  such  a  location  are  very  different  from  those  in  a 
strictly  fruit-growing  locality,  where  most  farmers  are 
producers  rather  than  consumers.  Yet  many  a  grower 
will  find  its  counterpart  in  his  own  situation.  Its  citation 
merely  serves  to  emphasize  the  old  problem  of  diversity 
of  surroundings  and  the  need  of  individuality  in  meeting 
a  given  problem. 


4  Bush-Fruits 

THE   LOCATION 

The  question  of  location  may  oftener  than  otherwise  be 
a  problem  of  adaptation,  provided  the  growing  of  bush- 
fruits  is  merely  to  fit  into  some  general  scheme  of  agricul- 
tural operations.  If  one  is  bent  on  doing  some  certain 
thing,  and  that  alone,  then  one  should  study  the  matter 
of  location  well,  and  choose  a  site  adapted  to  his  needs. 
This  is  seldom  done.  More  frequently  other  considerations 
determine  where  the  anchor  shall  be  cast.  The  problem 
must  ever  be  an  individual  one.  Any  attempt  to  solve  it 
in  a  large  way  will  be  futile  and  result  in  little  but  useless 
generalities.  Let  the  grower  study  well  his  tastes  and  his 
surroundings,  talk  with  fruit  handlers  in  the  community, 
then  learn  from  experience.  There  is  no  other  way. 

No  attempt  will  be  made  here  to  discuss  the  adapta- 
bility of  different  regions  of  the  country  to  the  growing  of 
bush-fruits,  yet  this  is  an  important  consideration  for  the 
commercial  grower.  The  writer  was  unable  to  grow  rasp- 
berries and  blackberries  successfully  in  the  dry  climate 
of  the  Plains  region,  and  met  with  no  marked  success  in 
the  fickle  climate  of  the  New  England  coast.  This  does 
not  mean  that  these  fruits  cannot  be  grown  in  these  loca- 
tions. It  does  mean,  however,  that  the  difficulties  are 
greater  than  in  the  region  of  the  central  states.  Deficient 
moisture  in  one  case,  and  excessive  moisture  in  the  other, 
had  much  to  do  with  results. 

Summer  heat  is  a  greater  enemy  than  winter  cold  over 
much  of  the  United  States,  especially  in  the  southern 
states  and  the  semi-arid  regions  of  the  West.  In  many 
such  localities  bush-fruits  cannot  be  profitably  grown. 


The  Site  and  the  Soil  5 

A  cool  moist  locality  is  much  more  favorable  for  all  these 
fruits  than  a  warm  and  dry  one.  Black-caps  succeed  bet- 
ter on  the  Plains  than  either  red  raspberries  or  blackber- 
ries, while  in  the  South  blackberries  thrive  better  than 
raspberries.  Propagation  of  black-caps  is  found  to  be 
much  more  difficult  in  the  far  South,  requiring  partially 
shaded  locations  for  success. 

THE   SITE   AND   THE   SOIL 

The  immediate  location  or  site  is  a  matter  of  importance 
with  the  bush-fruits.  All  are  subject  to  injury  from  spring 
frosts,  and  are  therefore  safer  on  elevated  land.  All  are 
subject  to  injury  from  summer  drought  and  excessive  heat. 
The  ideal  location,  therefore,  is  a  cool  northern  exposure 
which  does  not  feel  the  full  effects  of  the  sun's  rays  in  mid- 
summer. In  practical  farm  operations  other  things  usually 
determine  the  particular  location  of  a  plantation,  but  if  a 
choice  is  available  there  is  an  advantage  in  choosing  as 
above. 

Bush-fruits  will  thrive  on  almost  all  soils  but  most 
kinds  do  best  on  strong  moist  land,  which  is  deep  and 
porous,  but  well  drained.  Heavy  undrained  soils  are  un- 
suitable and  should  never  be  chosen.  All  are  not  equally 
well  adapted  to  every  kind  of  soil.  If  a  range  of  soils  were 
available,  the  dewberry  would  naturally  take  its  place 
on  the  light  sand,  the  red  raspberry  and  the  blackberry 
on  the  lighter  sandy  loams,  the  black-cap  on  the  heavier 
sandy  or  lighter  clay  loams,  with  the  currant  and  goose- 
berry on  the  strong  clay  loam  or  even  on  fairly  stiff  heavy 
clay.  Varieties  differ  also,  especially  among  the  brambles. 


6  Bush-Fruits 

Strong  rank  growers  may  develop  too  much  cane-growth 
with  deficient  fruiting  qualities  if  the  soil  is  heavy  and 
rich.  This  is  particularly  likely  to  occur  with  black- 
berries and  red  raspberries.  Winter-killing  is  often  the 
sequel  to  rank  growth  of  canes. 

Drought  resistance  is  really  the  prime  essential  to  be 
sought  in  the  choice  of  soils.  The  soil  which  will  provide 
the  best  supply  of  moisture  during  the  ripening  period  is 
the  one  which  is  likely  to  give  the  most  profitable  returns. 
This  quality  can  be  greatly  enhanced  by  methods  of 
handling.  A  soil  which  is  well  filled  with  humus,  and  in 
good  tilth,  will  withstand  drought  far  better  than  a  similar 
one  which  lacks  humus  and  is  not  well  tilled.  Recently 
turned  sod  is  objectionable  because  inconvenient  to  fur- 
row and  plant.  It  is  difficult  thoroughly  to  firm  the  soil 
about  the  roots  in  such  land.  The  percentage  of  loss  is 
therefore  likely  to  be  higher  and  the  rate  of  growth  slower. 
But  the  sooner  after  the  sod  has  rotted  that  the  field  can 
be  planted,  the  better  will  be  the  conditions  for  growth. 
Hence  land  which  has  been  tilled  but  one  year  is  better 
than  that  which  has  been  longer  under  the  plow.  Even 
sod  land  plowed  early  in  the  fall  may  be  used  for  spring 
planting  the  following  year  with  good  results. 

A  heavy  sod  in  process  of  decay  is  the  best  source  from 
which  to  obtain  humus  whether  for  bush-fruits  or  other 
crops.  Unfortunately  this  supply  is  soon  exhausted,  as 
the  land  remains  under  tillage,  and  must  be  supplemented 
from  other  sources.  Stable-manure  used  for  fertilizer  will 
help  to  maintain  the  supply  but  is  insufficient  for  best 
results,  unless  used  very  heavily.  Cover-crops  have  not 
been  extensively  used  in  bush-fruit  plantations,  but  a 


The  Site  and  the  Soil  7 

limited  experience  shows  that  they  are  decidedly  advan- 
tageous. What  the  particular  cover-crop  shall  be  will 
always  be  determined  by  conditions.  Where  crimson 
clover  thrives  it  is  undoubtedly  one  of  the  best.  For 
northern  latitudes  hairy  vetch  is  more  dependable.  Rye 
should  be  avoided  for,  unless  uprooted  at  just  the  right 
moment  in  spring,  it  so  quickly  saps  moisture  from  the 
ground  that  the  crop  may  suffer  much.  Its  growth  in 
spring  is  so  rapid  that  a  very  little  delay  caused  by  un- 
favorable weather  or  any  one  of  the  many  things  which  are 
always  hindering  in  farm  work  may  cause  serious  injury.1 

Soil  acidity  may  have  considerable  influence  on  results. 
Its  effects  differ  greatly  with  the  different  types  of  fruit. 
The  red  raspberry  is  impatient  with  an  acid  soil  and  will 
respond  well  to  an  application  of  lime.  The  black-cap  is 
not  sensitive  to  acidity.  It  may  even  object  to  too  heavy 
applications  of  lime.  Blackberries  are  comparatively  in- 
different, but  may  be  helped  some  by  lime  if  the  soil  is 
very  sour.  Currants  and  gooseberries  appear  to  behave 
in  much  the  same  way,  being  somewhat  benefited  when 
the  soil  is  very  sour.  Huckleberries,  on  the  other  hand, 
demand  a  sour  soil  and  will  only  thrive  when  it  is  present. 

Thorough  preparation  of  the  soil  is  essential,  especially 
deep  plowing,  with  a  good  plow  which  will  thoroughly 
pulverize  the  soil.  One  should  remember  that  he  is  to 
plow  but  once  and  the  crop  lasts  long;  therefore,  the  work 
should  be  thorough.  Subsoiling  may  be  advantageous 
under  exceptional  conditions,  but  under  those  conditions 
underdraining  will  probably  be  better.  Dynamiting,  de- 

1  For  a  fuller  discussion  of  cover-crops  in  their  relation  to  fruit- 
growing, see  Bailey's  "Principles  of  Fruit-growing,"  Revised  Ed. 


8  Bush-Fruits 

signed  to  accomplish  the  same  object,  is  more  in  use  at 
present,  but  apparently  no  more  likely  to  prove  generally 
beneficial. 

FERTILIZERS 

Few  definite  results  seem  to  be  available  showing  what 
fertilizers  to  use.  In  fact  definite  results  with  fertilizers 
are  not  easily  obtained  anywhere,  and  when  gotten  may 
be  of  very  indefinite  value  under  conditions  differing  from 
those  of  the  experiment.  A  knowledge  and  application 
of  the  general  principles  of  plant  feeding  are  much  more 
valuable  than  any  specific  directions  or  rules.  Stable- 
manure  is  a  safe  material  to  use  where  available,  unless  it 
be  on  moist  fertile  soil  where  there  is  a  tendency  to  rank 
and  tender  growth  of  canes.  If  supplemented  with  min- 
eral elements,  the  results  are  likely  to  be  better.  Basic 
slag  is  undoubtedly  one  of  the  best  sources  of  phosphoric 
acid.  Wood-ashes  form  an  ideal  source  of  potash,  but  are 
so  seldom  available  that  muriate  of  potash  is  much  of  tener 
used,  100  pounds  to  the  acre  being  sufficient.  Stable- 
manure  is  best  applied  in  fall  or  winter,  so  that  it  may  be- 
come available  for  early  spring  growth  and  not  foster  a 
late  fall  growth  which  may  lead  to  winter-killing. 

Leguminous  cover-crops,  if  used,  may  furnish  all  the 
nitrogen  needed  under  many  conditions.  If  it  becomes 
necessary  to  supply  this  element  in  the  form  of  chemicals^ 
it  can  be  obtained  from  nitrate  of  soda  or  dried  blood. 
One  hundred  pounds  of  the  former  or  125  pounds  of  the 
latter,  to  the  acre,  will  be  ample  under  average  conditions. 
Voorhees  *  recommends  a  basic  formula  consisting  of  150 
1  "Fertilizers,"  Revised  Ed.,  p.  313. 


Suggestions  on  Planting  9 

pounds  of  ground  bone  and  100  pounds  of  muriate  of 
potash,  to  be  supplemented  with  nitrogen  as  needed. 


SUGGESTIONS   ON   PLANTING 

Planting  may  be  done  in  spring  or  fall.  Each  time  has 
its  advantages.  In  fall  planting  the  work  can  be  con- 
ducted more  leisurely  and  when  the  ground  is  in  the  right 
condition.  In  spring  there  is  always  a  rush  of  work  and 
often  the  ground  is  too  wet  to  work  well  until  the  season 
is  late.  If  mulched  with  manure  or  earth,  fall-set  plants 
will  generally  go  through  the  winter  in  safety.  When 
spring  opens  such  a  plant  is  ready  to  beign  growth  at 
once.  In  regions  of  excessive  or  deficient  rainfall,  fall 
planting  is  less  likely  to  succeed.  In  the  one  case  plants 
are  often  lifted  by  heaving;  in  the  other  they  may  suffer 
from  winter  drought.  Spring  planting,  if  done  early  and 
under  proper  conditions,  is  always  safe  and  often  best.  It 
is  particularly  best  for  black-caps  and  dewberries.  A 
point  worth  remembering  is  that  the  soil  is  much  more 
easily  worked  following  spring  planting  than  following  fall 
planting.  This  may  materially  affect  the  cost  of  the  first 
season's  care.  Currants  and  gooseberries  begin  growth 
so  early  that  it  is  more  difficult  to  get  them  in  on  time. 
The  young  shoots  which  spring  up  from  black  raspberry 
tips  are  very  tender  and  easily  broken  when  started,  hence 
late  spring  planting  should  be  avoided. 

For  increasing  a  stock  of  red  raspberries  or  blackberries 
on  one's  own  grounds,  young  shoots  of  the  present  sea- 
son's growth  may  be  used  with  good  results.  Transplant 
them  like  cabbage  plants  any  time  after  they  are  four 


10  Bush-Fruits 

inches  high.  If  much  taller  than  this  cut  off  the  tops. 
They  should  be  well  established  by  fall.  All  plants,  and 
especially  red  raspberries  and  blackberries,  should  be 
carefully  lifted.  If  carelessly  pulled  up,  the  plant  is  likely 
to  break  at  the  connection  with  the  root  from  which  it 
springs,  leaving  only  a  straight  cane,  with  very  few  roots 
attached. 

The  individuality  of  the  parent  plant  is  worth  con- 
sidering when  it  is  feasible  to  do  so.  Plants  of  the  same 
variety  may  vary  widely  in  productiveness  and  size  of 
fruit.  It  is  reasonable  to  expect  some  of  these  differences 
to  reappear  in  the  offspring.  This  point  has  doubtless 
been  over-emphasized  in  some  cases.  Great  claims  have 
sometimes  been  made  for  so-called  "pedigree"  plants. 
Heredity  through  mere  division  of  the  parent  plant  does 
not  operate  in  the  same  way  as  it  does  in  sexual  reproduc- 
tion of  animal  life.  Many  of  the  differences  which  ap- 
pear in  plants  of  the  same  variety  are  due  to  different 
conditions  to  which  the  plant  may  have  been  subjected, 
and  may  not  reappear  in  the  young  plants  taken  from  it. 
Yet  every  practical  grower  would  rather  have  a  strong, 
thrifty  plant,  from  a  vigorous  and  productive  parent,  than 
the  opposite.  Vigor  and  thrift  are  essential.  " Pedigree" 
other  than  this  is  of  doubtful  value. 

Six  feet  apart  is  a  common  and  convenient  distance  for 
bush-fruit  rows,  with  plants  two  to  three  feet  apart  in  the 
rows.  Under  some  conditions  check-rows  may  be  pref- 
erable, since  their  use  reduces  the  amount  of  hand  work 
needed  to  keep  the  plantation  clean.  In  that  case  plants 
may  be  put  four  to  five  feet  apart  each  way.  Blackberries 
and  red  raspberries,  owing  to  their  suckering  habit,  natu- 


Suggestions  on  Planting  11 

rally  form  hedge-rows.  These  are  inconvenient  to  keep 
clean,  but  produce  more  fruit  than  the  smaller  number  of 
plants  which  will  be  left  in  hills.  Currants  and  goose- 
berries adapt  themselves  readily  to  hill  culture,  in  fields 
of  sufficient  size.  In  dry  climates  plants  should  be  farther 
apart  than  where  moisture  is  more  abundant.  Too  close 
planting  in  a  moist  climate,  especially  in  a  sheltered  loca- 
tion where  the  wind  cannot  have  free  play,  may  favor  the 
spread  of  fungous  diseases.  When  rows  are  placed  six 
feet  apart,  it  may  sometimes  be  worth  while  to  set  the 
plants  four  feet  apart  in  the  rows  and  line  them  the  op- 
posite way  so  that  the  rows  may  be  crossed  with  horse 
and  cultivator  when  the  plants  are  small  and  when  the 
old  canes  are  first  removed  after  fruiting. 

If  plants  are  received  from  a  distance,  the  sooner  they 
can  be  set  the  better,  but  if  conditions  are  unfavorable  it 
is  better  to  wait.  Heeling-in  is  a  simple  process,  and  if 
carefully  done  the  plants  may  be  safely  kept  for  some 
time.  In  the  shade  of  a  building  is  a  good  place  to  do  this. 
A  shallow  trench  should  be  opened,  with  one  side  slightly 
slanting.  Loosen  the  bunches  enough  so  that  the  roots 
may  all  come  in  contact  with  the  earth,  then  lay  them 
against  the  slanting  side  and  cover  the  roots  carefully, 
pressing  the  earth  firmly  about  them.  Tier  after  tier 
may  be  packed  in  this  way.  If  too  dry  when  received, 
placing  the  plants  in  water  or  covering  them  entirely  with 
earth  for  a  time  will  help  them  to  recover. 

The  most  convenient  method  of  planting  is  to  throw  out 
good  deep  furrows  with  a  plow.  If  the  plants  are  to  be 
set  in  check-rows,  the  field  should  first  be  marked  at  right 
angles  to  the  furrows.  It  is  the  practice  of  some  growers 


12  Bush-Fruits 

to  use  stakes  for  all  such  furrowing  out.  At  least  three  are 
needed,  one  for  either  end  and  one  between.  Care  must  be 
taken  to  see  that  these  are  set  in  perfect  range  to  begin 
with.  Notches  are  cut  on  each  to  give  the  correct  dis- 
tance apart  for  the  rows.  Starting  at  the  first  stake  a 
mark  is  made  in  the  soil  and  the  stake  moved  to  the  place 
for  the  next  row.  The  driver  should  then  step  between 
the  heads  of  the  team,  taking  each  horse  by  the  bit  and 
walking  between  them,  keeping  his  eye  constantly  on 
the  two  stakes  ahead  and  in  exact  range  with  them.  A 
man  behind  keeps  the  plow  following  in  his  footsteps. 
Before  the  middle  stake  is  reached  one  should  try  to  catch 
some  object  in  the  distance,  by  which  to  keep  the  proper 
range  from  that  point  to  the  end  of  the  row,  after  moving 
this  stake  to  the  next  row.  When  the  end  is  reached  a 
mark  is  made  for  the  starting  point  of  the  second  row 
and  the  stake  set  for  the  third  one.  It  is  ordinarily  better 
to  return  in  the  same  furrow,  for  by  going  twice  in  the 
same  row  the  soil  is  turned  out  in  both  directions  and  left 
in  a  finer  and  better  condition  for  covering  the  plants. 
It  is  often  possible  also  to  correct  irregularities  of  the 
furrow  caused  by  stones  throwing  the  plow  to  one  side  or 
from  other  reasons.  Another  advantage  is  that  in  going 
but  once  in  a  furrow,  with  these  turned  in  opposite  direc- 
tions, the  alternate  spaces  are  likely  to  differ  in  width. 
If  it  seems  desirable  to  have  a  straight  landside  to  the 
furrow,  against  which  to  place  the  plants  in  setting,  the 
plow  should  pass  through  but  once.  In  that  case  it  is 
often  better  to  furrow  but  one  way,  driving  back  each 
time  without  plowing  a  furrow.  With  a  well-trained  team, 
a  good  driver  can  make  the  furrows  very  straight  alone, 


Management  of  the  Land  13 

but  it  is  more  convenient  to  let  one  man  attend  to  the  plow 
while  another  leads  the  team. 

If  the  soil  is  deep,  it  may  be  well  to  make  the  furrows 
deep  and  set  the  plants  well  below  the  surface,  only  par- 
tially filling  in  the  furrow  at  the  time  of  planting.  It  is 
sometimes  thought  that  plants  so  set  are  better  able  to 
withstand  drought  and  will  stand  up  better.  That  de- 
pends much  on  soil  conditions.  If  the  subsoil  is  hard  and 
unfavorable  for  root-growth,  and  the  surface  soil  shallow, 
deep  planting  will  not  be  wise. 

In  well-prepared  ground,  with  the  furrows  deep  enough, 
the  plants  are  quickly  set  with  the  hands  alone,  drawing 
the  earth  over  the  roots  and  firming  it  well,  but  leaving 
much  of  the  furrow  to  be  filled  in  with  a  hoe  or  by  the  sub- 
sequent cultivation.  It  is  best  to  carry  small  plants  of 
this  kind  in  water,  from  which  they  are  removed  only  as 
set.  If  several  persons  are  at  work,  one  may  carry  and 
drop  the  plants  while  the  others  set.  The  plants  should 
be  dropped  no  faster  than  they  are  set.  If  one  person  is 
working  alone,  the  plants  may  be  carried  in  a  pail  par- 
tially filled  with  water  from  which  they  are  removed  as 
needed. 

MANAGEMENT   OF   THE   LAND 

Bush-fruits  will  not  fully  occupy  the  soil  the  first  year. 
Intercropping  is,  therefore,  permissible.  With  rows  six 
feet  apart  a  row  of  almost  any  tilled  crop  may  be  placed 
between.  Even  strawberries  may  be  used,  though  these 
are  less  desirable  because  remaining  until  the  second  year. 
The  advisability  of  intercropping  depends  much  on  the 


14  Bush-Fruits 

fertility  of  the  soil  and  the  methods  of  the  grower.  Some- 
times it  is  wise,  sometimes  unwise. 

The  first  year's  cultivation  is  simple.  The  same  care 
which  any  other  hoed  crop  should  receive  will  suffice. 
The  better  the  tillage,  the  better  the  growth;  the  more 
complete  the  dust  mulch,  the  more  moisture  will  be  con- 
served. 

The  tillage  of  succeeding  years  is  not  so  simple.  Many 
soils  become  very  hard  when  not  plowed,  and  weeds  soon 
gain  a  foothold.  Here  is  a  case  where  the  proverbial 
" stitch  in  time"  is  especially  important.  But  even  with 
the  best  of  intentions  the  stitch  will  sometimes  be  dropped. 
Frost  leaves  the  ground  in  excellent  condition  in  spring, 
loose  and  easily  tilled.  If  the  cultivator  and  hoes  can  be 
started  at  once,  and  kept  going,  all  will  go  well.  Unfor- 
tunately this  soil  condition  is  altogether  too  brief.  Spring 
rains,  winds  and  sun  soon  change  it.  Often  the  ground  is 
not  dry  enough  to  work  before  the  change  has  taken  place. 
Any  good  cultivator  will  do  the  work  if  it  can  be  started 
in  time,  but  if  delayed  too  long  even  a  plow  may  be  neces- 
sary. This  is  undesirable,  for  even  as  shallow  a  furrow  as 
can  be  turned  is  likely  to  prove  injurious,  especially  among 
the  groselles,  where  deep  cultivation  is  always  to  be 
avoided.  The  use  of  cover-crops  may  necessitate  more 
vigorous  methods  in  the  spring  cultivation  than  would  be 
needed  otherwise.  In  soils  which  are  easily  worked,  a 
scuffle  hoe  may  do  the  work  among  the  plants  more 
rapidly  than  an  ordinary  hoe. 

Maturity  of  cane  and  winter  hardiness  do  not  seem  to 
be  coordinate  among  bush-fruits.  Hence  the  common 
advice  to  cease  tillage  in  midsummer  in  order  to  ripen 


Management  of  the  Land  15 

wood-growth  is  at  least  open  to  question.  Canes  which 
spring  up  late  in  the  season,  and  which  apparently  go  into 
winter  immature,  will  often  come  through  green  to  the 
tip,  while  large  and  apparently  mature  canes  will  be 
seriously  injured.  Much  depends  on  climate,  locality  and 
season.  In  serni-arid  climates,  like  that  of  the  plains, 
there  is  little  danger  of  inducing  too  late  fall  growth  by 
continuous  tillage.  Lack  of  soil  moisture  is  a  greater 
menace.  Plants  there  often  suffer  from  winter  drought. 
The  writer  found  that  continuous  cultivation  gave  good 
results  in  Nebraska.  Some  definite,  careful  experimenta- 
tion is  needed  to  determine  what  conditions  and  methods 
of  treatment  are  needed  to  insure  least  injury  in  winter. 

Mulching  to  replace  tillage  is  often  suggested.  It  is  a 
practice  which  is  to  be  commended  under  some  condi- 
tions, but  those  conditions  are  exceptional  rather  than 
general.  It  is  especially  adapted  to  moist  soils  in  regions 
of  abundant  rainfall.  In  the  home-garden,  where  the 
plot  may  be  small  and  inconvenient  to  cultivate  or  where 
there  is  no  horse  available  with  which  to  do  the  work,  it 
may  be  the  best  plan.  In  field  culture  the  soil  mulch  is 
generally  the  best.  On  any  large  scale,  mulching  is  ex- 
pensive. It  is  often  difficult  to  obtain  material  and  it 
takes  time  to  apply  it.  Mulching  is  thought  to  induce 
surface  rooting  of  the  plants.  Such  roots  may  be  quickly 
injured  if  the  mulch  is  allowed  to  disappear,  and  may 
suffer  more  in  time  of  severe  drought.  It  is  thought  that 
its  practice  will  give  more  satisfactory  results  with  cur- 
rants and  gooseberries  than  with  other  bush-fruits.  Their 
rooting  habit  seems  to  be  shallow  and  they  are  easily  in- 
jured by  deep  cultivation. 


16  Bush-Fruits 

Some  commercial  growers  owning  rich  soils  in  moist 
climates  have  found  mulching  desirable,  especially  in  the 
later  years  of  a  plantation's  life.  The  mulch  is  usually 
obtained  by  seeding  the  land  to  clover,  which  is  mowed 
and  left  on  the  ground.  A  practice  at  one  time,  and  per- 
haps still  in  use,  was  to  grow  clover  on  other  land,  to  be 
cut  and  spread  along  the  rows,  tillage  being  kept  up  in  the 
spaces  between. 

TILLAGE  TOOLS 

Few  special  tools  are  needed  in  the  bush-fruit  plantation. 
The  cultivator  is  the  most  important  implement.  Any 
kind  which  will  thoroughly  loosen  the  soil  and  leave  the 
surface  level  will  answer  the  purpose.  It  should  be  one 
which  will  do  good  work  when  widely  spread.  With  full- 
grown  bushes  it  is  impossible  to  do  good  work  except  with 
a  wide  tool  which  can  run  beneath  the  branches.  For 
suckering  varieties,  a  tool  with  teeth  which  are  square  on 
the  end  is  desirable.  Such  teeth  will  cut  many  suckers 
beneath  the  surface  where  ordinary  teeth  will  dodge  them. 
They  are  also  useful  in  cutting  off  Canada  thistles  and 
other  deep-rooted  plants  which  often  escape.  In  soil 
which  is  free  from  stones  it  is  possible  to  use  knives  or 
cutting  blades  of  steel  which  can  be  made  by  a  blacksmith 
and  attached  to  an  ordinary  cultivator. 

For  working  under  large  and  spreading  plants,  the 
scuffle  hoe,  already  mentioned,  is  a  useful  tool.  Those  on 
the  market,  especially  the  crescent  scuffle  hoe,  answer 
the  purpose  well.  A  home-made  device,  designed  for  a 
similar  purpose  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  1.  It  was  made  by 


Pruning 


17 


riveting  a  piece  of  heavy  scythe  to  the  outer  tines  of  an 
old  fork. 

Two  devices  for  the  horse  which  does  the  cultivating 
are  worth  mentioning  in  this  connection. 
One  is  a  wire  muzzle  which  can  be  slipped 
over  the  nose  and  buckled  to  the  bit-ring. 
Most  horses  are  fond  of  the  canes  and 
will  be  constantly  nipping  them,  both  to 
the  detriment  of  the  plants  and  of  their 
work.  This  device  will  prevent  that. 
Tying  an  old  grain-sack  with  the  bottom 
cut  off  over  the  nose  will  accomplish  the 
same  object  but  is  rather  uncomfortable 
for  the  horse  in  warm  weather. 

A  leather  apron  to  protect  his  breast 
from  the  thorns  is  also  a  good  thing  to 
use.  The  horse  needs  to  be  kept  close  to 
one  row  so  that  the  cultivator  will  reach 
under  the  bushes,  and  this  apron  will  make  it  easier  to 
keep  him  there. 


SCJJ  °rm£ 
scraper. 


PRUNING 

The  old  canes  of  raspberries  and  blackberries  are  best 
removed  and  burned  as  soon  as  fruiting  is  over.  Any 
insects  which  may  be  at  work  in  them  are  thus  destroyed. 
The  canes  can  be  more  easily  cut  at  that  time,  also,  for 
they  are  still  soft,  while  by  spring  they  become  dry  and 
woody.  Removing  the  canes  at  this  time  also  offers  a 
good  opportunity  to  clean  up  the  plantation  and  cultivate 
close  to  the  bushes.  The  fruiting  habit  of  the  groselles  is 


18 


Bush-Fruits 


different  from  that  of  the  brambles,  since  the  branches 
live  from  year  to  year.  Yet  a  somewhat  similar  principle 
of  renewing  the  fruiting  wood  may  be  followed  with  ad- 
vantage. Young  wood  bears  the  finest  and  largest  fruit. 
Hence  it  is  better  to  cut  out  the  older  wood  from  year  to 
year,  allowing  the  younger  shoots  to  take  its  place.  This 
is  better  than  cutting  off  the  ends  of  the  shoots,  for  that 
induces  additional  branching,  with  a  dense  top-heavy 
growth. 

Different  implements  are  used  for  cutting  out  the  old 
wood.  For  currants  and  gooseberries,  long-handled 
pruning-shears  are  probably  best.  For  brambles,  when  the 

canes  are  still  green,  a  bush- 
scythe,  corn-cutter  or  some 
form  of  hooked  knife  in  a  long 
handle  is  more  convenient.  A 
good  tool  of  this  kind  can  be 
made  from  a  flat  file,  bent  and 
flattened,  then  driven  into  a 
shovel  or  manure-fork  handle, 
as  shown  in  Fig.  2.  The  heel  of 
an  old  scythe  can  be  used  for  a 
similar  purpose.  A  spud  simi- 

Fig.  2.  Fig.  3.          lar  to  that  shown  in  Fig.  3  is 

Pruning-hook.  Pruning-spud.  sometimes  useful  in  cutting  out 
young  canes  or  in  cutting  off  young  suckers.  It  may  also 
be  used  in  putting  down  tips  of  black  raspberries. 

A  special  rake  for  gathering  up  the  prunings  has  been 
recommended  by  some  growers.  It  consists  of  a  head- 
piece of  4  x  4  timber,  about  5  feet  long.  Into  this  are 
fastened  seven  teeth  of  %-inch  round  iron,  18  inches 


Staking  and  Trellising  19 

long.  Poles  at  right  angles  to  the  teeth  serve  for  shafts 
and  a  bow  is  attached  to  the  head-piece  for  handling  it. 
By  means  of  such  a  tool  the  canes  can  readily  be  gathered 
into  piles  in  the  rows,  from  whence  they  can  be  loaded  on 
a  hay-rack  and  drawn  away.  Gathering  them  by  hand 
is  slow  and  expensive  work. 

For  the  spring  pruning  of  brambles,  which  consists 
chiefly  of  cutting  back  the  laterals,  light,  quick  and  easy- 
working  shears  are  needed.  If  the  canes  are  not  too  large 
and  dry,  a  pair  of  sheep-shears  works  well.  For  nipping 
back  the  new  growth  in  summer  a  long-bladed  knife  or 
sickle  with  a  keen  edge  will  be  found  convenient,  especially 
on  young  bushes.  On  older  plants  these  new  shoots  are 
shielded  by  the  older  canes  so  that  they  are  not  so  readily 
reached  with  a  stroke  of  the  knife.  Sheep-shears  or  the 
thumb  and  finger  are  better  under  those  conditions. 

It  is  best  to  go  over  the  plantation  at  several  different 
times  if  the  pinching-back  plan  is  followed.  This  ought 
to  be  done  when  the  shoots  reach  the  right  height.  If 
allowed  to  grow  taller,  then  cut  back,  the  laterals  do 
not  push  forth  so  vigorously.  If  only  the  tip  is  removed 
from  a  tall  shoot,  the  result  will  be  a  top-heavy  bush  which 
will  not  hold  up  its  fruit  well.1 


STAKING  AND   TRELLISING 

Many  home  growers,  and  in  some  localities  even  com- 
mercial growers,  believe  it  profitable  to  use  stakes  or 
trellises  of  some  sort  to  support  the  plants  of  different 

1  For  full  discussion  of  the  principles  and  practice  of  pruning,  con- 
sult "  The  Pruning-Manual "  by  L.  H.  Bailey. 


20  Bush-Fruits 

brambles.  With  dewberries  this  is  almost  essential  if 
cultivation  is  to  be  given.  With  the  other  kinds  it  is  some- 
times desirable.  Various  methods  are  employed.  When 
the  plants  are  grown  in  hills  a  stake  at  each  hill,  to  which 
the  canes  are  loosely  tied,  is  the  plan  followed.  If  grown 
in  hedge-rows,  posts  are  set  along  the  row,  to  which  one 
or  more  wires  are  fastened.  If  a  single  wire  is  used,  the 
canes  are  tied  to  this.  Another  plan,  which  does  away 
with  the  labor  of  tying,  is  to  nail  cross-pieces  to  these 
posts  and  fasten  two  wires  to  these  pieces,  about  eighteen 
inches  apart.  The  shoots  are  allowed  to  grow  up  between 
the  two  wires  and  are  supported  by  them  as  they  droop 
outward.  The  height  of  these  wires  should  be  such  as  to 
bring  them  about  to  the  branching-point  of  the  canes.  A 
method  in  vogue  in  the  Hudson  River  Valley,  as  described 
later,  is  to  hinge  this  trellis  to  short  posts  in  the  ground, 
supporting  it  by  braces,  so  that  the  whole  can  be  laid  upon 
the  ground  and  the  plants  covered  for  winter  protection. 
Trellising  methods  are  shown  in  Plates  I  and  V. 

WINTER-KILLING 

The  hardiness  of  the  varieties  which  he  cultivates  is  a 
point  of  great  importance  to  the  grower.  To  determine 
what  constitutes  hardiness  is  not  easy.  Neither  is  it  defi- 
nitely known  what  method  of  treatment  is  best  adapted 
to  prevent  winter  injury.  Conditions  of  season  and  of 
growth  undoubtedly  affect  the  result  in  great  measure. 
Disease  or  excessive  summer  heat  may  so  weaken  plants 
that  they  are  unable  to  withstand  the  most  favorable 
winter.  Strong  healthy  plants,  on  the  other  hand,  will 


Winter-killing  21 

often  endure  the  most  trying  winters  unhurt.  Raspberry 
plants  which  the  writer  once  removed  to  a  forcing-house 
in  the  fall  of  the  year  showed  all  the  ordinary  symptoms 
of  winter-killing,  when  starting  into  growth  under  glass. 
Yet  these  plants  had  experienced  little  cold;  just  enough 
so  that  a  ball  of  earth  could  be  taken  up  and  moved  with 
them  to  the  house. 

A  current  belief  is  that  plants  endure  the  winter  better 
after  a  comparatively  dry  fall,  favoring  a  slow,  well- 
ripened  growth  of  wood.  The  validity  of  this  theory  is 
not  established,  for  slender  canes,  produced  during  the 
latter  part  of  the  season,  often  winter-kill  less  than  those 
of  the  whole  season's  growth.  This  fact  does  not  warrant 
the  assertion  that  immature  canes  are  hardier,  for  canes 
produced  late  are  smaller,  and  may  make  firmer  and  better 
wood  than  those  of  earlier  and  more  vigorous  growth. 
Some  successful  berry-growers  follow  a  practice  directly 
opposed  to  this  theory,  for  they  believe  in  thorough  and 
frequent  cultivation  up  to  the  time  of  frost.  This  favors 
a  late  fall  growth,  producing  some  wood,  at  least,  which 
cannot  be  well  ripened  when  winter  sets  in. 

Winter  protection  is  an  essential  feature  of  berry- 
growing  in  many  localities.  Many  growers  find  the  prac- 
tice profitable  even  where  it  is  not  essential.  The  in- 
creased yield,  even  in  mild  climates,  may  more  than  repay 
the  cost  of  protection.  A  crop  of  fruit  is  thereby  assured, 
even  though  the  winter  prove  an  unusually  trying  one. 

Different  methods  are  employed  for  laying-down  the 
canes.  A  wagon  is  sometimes  driven  over  the  rows  so 
that  the  axle  shall  bend  the  plants  all  in  one  direction.  If 
mulch  of  any  kind  is  used  for  covering,  it  may  be  loaded 


22  Bush-Fruits 

on  the  wagon  and  applied  at  the  same  time.  A  part  of  the 
row  is  sometimes  bent  over  with  a  fence-rail,  which  is 
left  on  the  plants  to  hold  them  down. 

A  simple  and  practical  method  followed  in  Minnesota, 
where  protection  is  essential,  is  described  by  Kirkpatrick  l 
as  follows: 

"Two  men  are  required  to  do  the  work  rightly.  Facing 
to  the  north  end  of  the  row,  one  takes  a  spading-forkful 
of  earth  from  the  north  side  of  the  hill.  The  other  man, 
with  an  ordinary  pitchfork,  pushes  the  canes  to  the  ground. 
Planting  the  foot  against  the  base  of  the  canes  and 
pushing  at  the  same  time  is  advised.  This  causes  most  of 
the  bending  to  occur  in  the  root,  and  often  prevents  break- 
ing the  cane.  When  bent,  the  canes  are  pinned  down  with 
the  pitchfork  while  the  other  man  throws  on  them  a  few 
forkfuls  of  soil,  to  hold  them  in  place.  Later,  a  complete 
covering  with  soil,  to  a  depth  of  three  or  four  inches, 
should  be  made.  .  .  .  Two  men  can  do  the  work  well 
and  rapidly.  Trash  or  weeds  mixed  with  this  covering, 
or  under  it,  are  not  desirable;  for  they  afford  a  harboring- 
place  for  mice,  which  may  injure  the  canes. 

"A  machine  requiring  four  horses  has  been  planned  to 
do  this  work.  While  it  covers  them  nicely,  it  has  the  fault 
of  breaking  very  many  canes,  and  for  that  reason  is  not 
extensively  used. 

"The  covering  should  be  removed  with  a  round-tined 
fork  in  the  spring,  when  the  ground  has  become  dry  and 
settled.  Some  of  the  earth  is  scratched  off,  and  the  canes 
lifted  to  a  slanting  position  with  the  fork.  Many  growers 
leave  the  canes  slanting  as  far  as  possible,  and  believe  it 
1  Minnesota  Farmers'  Library,  Extension  Bulletin  No.  16. 


Winter-killing  23 

beneficial;  otherwise  they  are  carefully  drawn  up  and  tied 
or  supported,  as  before  directed.  The  earth  used  for 
covering  is  worked  back  into  its  original  position  by  the 
first  cultivation. 

"The  work  of  laying  down  can  be  done  at  any  time  after 
growth  stops  in  the  fall,  but  before  the  ground  freezes. 
It  may  even  be  done  while  the  plants  are  yet  in  full  leaf, 
without  injury,  if  conditions  are  favorable,  but  this  is  not 
to  be  recommended.  The  time  of  lifting  them  in  spring  is 
of  greater  importance.  A  plant  which  has  been  covered 
during  the  winter  is  much  more  tender  than  one  which  has 
been  exposed  to  the  weather.  If  lifted  too  early,  and  severe 
weather  follows,  they  are  likely  to  suffer  even  more  than  if 
left  exposed  during  the  entire  winter.  If  left  too  late, 
growth  may  begin  while  they  are  still  covered,  rendering 
them  sensitive  to  even  light  frosts  when  exposed.  A  few 
days  of  mild  weather  following  the  uncovering  is  desir- 
able. The  cost  of  this  protection  is  not  excessive.  In 
Wisconsin,  where  much  of  it  is  done,  the  cost  of  laying- 
down  blackberries  and  lifting  them  again  in  spring  has 
been  estimated  at  about  $5  an  acre." 

Bailey  writes1  as  follows  on  this  subject:  "Blackberries 
and  raspberries  are  extensively  laid  down  in  cold  climates, 
and  it  may  be  well  to  relate  the  method  here  for  the  benefit 
of  those  who  occupy  bleak  locations.  Late  in  fall,  the 
bushes  are  tipped  over  and  covered.  Three  men  are 
generally  employed  to  perform  this  labor.  One  man  goes 
ahead  with  a  long-handled  round-pointed  shovel  and  digs 
the  earth  away  six  inches  deep  from  under  the  roots.  The 
second  man  has  a  six-tined  or  four-tined  fork  which  he 
1  "Principles  of  Fruit-G rowing,"  Revised  Ed.,  p.  257. 


24  Bush-Fruits 

thrusts  against  the  plant  a  foot  or  so  above  the  ground, 
and  by  pushing  on  the  fork  and  stamping  against  the 
roots  with  the  foot,  the  plant  is  laid  over  in  the  direction 
from  which  the  earth  was  removed.  The  third  man  now 
covers  the  plant  with  earth  or  marsh  hay.  Earth  is 
mostly  used,  and  if  the  variety  is  tender  the  whole  bush 
is  covered  two  or  three  inches  deep.  Hardy  varieties  may 
be  held  down  by  throwing  a  few  shovelfuls  of  earth  on 
the  tops  of  the  canes,  thus  allowing  the  snow  to  fill  in 
amongst  the  tops.  If  the  grower  lives  in  a  locality  where 
late  spring  frosts  are  not  feared,  the  bushes  should  be 
raised  early  in  the  spring;  but  if  frosts  are  anticipated,  they 
may  be  left  under  cover  until  corn-planting  time.  If  the 
buds  become  large  and  are  bleached  white  under  cover, 
they  will  suffer  when  exposed  to  the  atmosphere;  and  one 
must  watch  the  bushes  in  spring,  and  raise  them  before 
the  growth  starts.  This  method  of  laying  down  black- 
berry plants  costs  less  than  $15  an  acre,  and  the  slight 
breaking  of  the  roots  is  no  disadvantage.  Some  growers 
dig  the  earth  away  on  both  sides  of  the  row,  and  still  others 
bend  over  the  canes  without  any  digging.  Whatever 
method  is  employed,  the  operator  must  be  careful  not  to 
crack  or  split  the  canes.  The  method  may  be  varied 
with  different  varieties,  for  some  bear  stiffer  canes  than 
others." 

The  same  author  writes1  again  as  follows:  "The  tops 
of  plants  may  be  laid  down  for  the  winter.  Fig.  4  shows  a 
method  of  laying  down  blackberries  as  practiced  in  the 
Hudson  River  Valley.  The  plants  were  tied  to  a  trellis, 
as  the  method  is  in  that  country,  two  wires  having 
1  "  Manual  of  Gardening,"  p.  138. 


Winter-killing 


25 


been  run  on  either  side  of  the  row.    The  posts  are  hinged 

by  a  pivot  to  a  short  post,  and  are  held  in  position  by 

a  brace.    The  entire  trellis  is  then  laid  down  upon  the 

approach  of  winter,  as  shown  in  the  illustration.     The 

blackberry  tops  are  so  strong  that  they  hold  the  wires  up 

from  the  ground,  even 

when  the  trellis  is  laid 

down.      To    hold     the 

wires  close  to  the  earth, 

stakes  are  thrust  over 

them    in    a    slanting 

position.       The     snow 

that  drifts  through  the 

plants  ordinarily  affords 

sufficient  protection  for 

plants    which     are    as 

hardy  as  grapes  and  berries.    In  fact,  the  plants  may  be 

uninjured  even  without  cover,  since,  in  their  prostrate 

position,  they  escape  the  cold  and  drying  winds." 

Severe  cold  is  not  the  only  cause  of  winter-killing.  Other 
weather  conditions  play  an  important  part.  In  Nebraska, 
red  raspberries  and  blackberries  are  commonly  killed  to 
the  ground  if  left  unprotected,  and  black-caps  fare  only 
slightly  better.  Yet  the  climate  is  no  colder  than  in  New 
York  or  Pennsylvania,  where  protection  is  rarely  given. 
During  one  winter  in  Nebraska,  the  mercury  fell  below 
zero  but  once,  and  then  only  five  degrees  below,  yet  un- 
protected canes  were  entirely  killed.  Young  plants  of 
Taylor  blackberry  were  uniformly  killed  to  the  ground 
during  that  winter.  Plants  in  adjoining  rows,  of  the  same 
age  and  similar  in  other  respects,  were  laid  down  and  cov- 


Fig.  4.  Laying  down  trellis-grown  black- 
berries. 


26  Bush-Fruits 

ered.    These  came  through  in  perfect  condition,  green  to 
the  tips. 

The  following  winter  was  much  colder,  but  the  pre- 
ceding summer  and  autumn  were  favorable,  with  plenty 
of  rain.  The  plants,  therefore,  went  into  winter  quarters 
with  a  good  supply  of  moisture  in  the  ground.  Both 
raspberry  and  blackberry  plants  came  through  that  winter 
in  good  condition  without  protection,  although  much 
lower  temperatures  prevailed  than  during  the  preceding 
winter.  Drought  is  more  disastrous  than  cold  in  Nebraska. 
Excessive,  as  well  as  deficient  moisture,  may  contribute 
to  winter  injury.  In  the  moist  climate  of  the  New  England 
coast,  where  moisture  is  seldom  deficient,  and  usually 
excessive,  winter-killing  is  likewise  common. 

PROPAGATION  l 

The  ordinary  methods  of  propagation  are  simple,  con- 
sisting in  some  form  of  division  or  continuation  of  the 
parent  plant.  Tips,  suckers,  or  cuttings  are  used,  accord- 
ing to  the  habit  of  the  species.  These  methods  will  be 
discussed  later  under  each  individual  fruit. 

Reproduction  from  seeds  must  be  employed  if  new 
varieties  are  to  be  obtained.  This  does  not  concern  the 
practical  grower,  but  for  the  benefit  of  the  inexperienced 
devotee  of  these  fruits,  who  may  wish  to  try  his  luck  in 
this  lottery  of  reproduction,  a  method  of  handling  is  here 
given.  Growing  plants  from  seeds  is  a  slow  process,  and  in 
most  cases  the  offspring  will  show  no  qualities  superior 

1  For  extended  discussions  of  propagation  of  plants,  see  Bailey, 
"The  Nursery-Book." 


Propagation  27 

to   the   parent,   or   to   other  varieties  already   in  culti- 
vation. 

When  the  fruit  is  thoroughly  ripe  the  seeds  should  be 
washed  out  of  the  pulp  in  water,  and  may  then  be  sown 
at  once,  or  first  dried,  like  other  seeds,  and  sown  later. 
There  is  reason  to  believe  that  a  larger  proportion  of  the 
seeds  will  germinate  the  first  spring  after  sowing  if  put  in 
the  soil  at  once,  than  if  dried  and  kept  some  time  before 
sowing.  By  the  latter  method  most  of  them  remain  dor- 
mant during  one  whole  season,  germinating  the  second 
spring.  Unless  they  are  to  be  sown  in  very  large  quanti- 
ties, gardeners'  flats,  about  two  feet  square  and  five  or 
six  inches  deep,  will  be  found  most  convenient.  The  soil 
used  should  be  rather  light  and  porous,  one  which  will 
not  bake  nor  pack  hard.  The  seed  may  be  sown  in  rows 
two  or  three  inches  apart,  or  broadcast  over  the  surface 
of  the  ground.  Cover  lightly,  about  one-fourth  of  an 
inch  deep.  The  boxes  can  then  be  put  outside  in  a  pro- 
tected, shady  place,  and  left  till  the  seeds  germinate. 
If  the  seeds  are  the  product  of  crosses  or  particularly 
choice  selections,  so  that  they  need  to  be  kept  pure,  the 
flat  should  be  covered  with  a  fine  screen  to  prevent  the 
possibility  of  birds  dropping  other  seeds  into  the  same 
box,  as  might  easily  happen,  especially  if  the  box  has  been 
placed  under  trees  to  secure  the  desired  shade.  The  only 
attention  required  from  this  time  on  is  to  see  that  the  soil 
is  not  allowed  to  dry  out  enough  to  injure  the  germinating 
power  of  the  seeds.  Weeds  should  also  be  pulled  out  as 
they  appear.  As  soon  as  the  plants  are  strong  enough  to 
bear  handling,  they  should  be  potted  off  or  reset  in  other 
flats,  putting  them  two  or  three  inches  apart  each  way. 


28  Bush-Fruits 

The  flats  or  pots  in  which  these  young  plants  are  growing 
should  be  well  plunged  in  the  soil  to  avoid  drying  out. 
This  is  of  especial  importance  in  getting  the  plants  through 
the  winter  safely,  for  lack  of  moisture  in  winter  is  as  de- 
structive to  plant  life  as  lack  of  moisture  in  summer.  After 
one  season's  growth  the  plants  may  be  strong  enough  to 
be  set  in  the  open  ground,  but  they  need  mellow,  well- 
prepared  soil  and  careful  attention,  for  most  of  them  will 
still  be  small  and  weak. 

THINNING    THE    FRUIT 

Thinning  is  essential  with  all  fruits,  at  times,  if  best 
results  are  to  be  secured.  Berries  may  be  thinned  by  clip- 
ping off  clusters  or  portions  of  clusters,  but  such  a  process 
is  of  interest  only  to  the  novice,  or  to  the  exhibitor,  who 
may  wish  a  few  unusually  fine  specimens.  Thinning  is  of 
importance  to  the  commercial  grower,  but  he  accomplishes 
his  object  in  a  much  simpler  way.  His  thinning  is  done 
at  the  annual  spring  pruning,  by  leaving  more  or  less 
fruit-bearing  wood.  This  is  important  and  should  be 
kept  constantly  in  mind  at  the  time  of  pruning.  Judgment 
and  experience  are  both  essential  if  the  work  is  to  be  prop- 
erly done.  If  the  right  amount  of  wood  is  left,  no  further 
thinning  will  be  needed. 

FORCING   BUSH-FRUITS 

The  wealthy  grower,  who  wishes  to  procure  things  out 
of  season,  regardless  of  cost,  will  find  it  possible  to  grow 
bush-fruits  under  glass  if  he  wishes  to  do  so.  Young 
plants  of  raspberries  and  blackberries  can  be  started  in 


Suggestions  on  Picking  29 

boxes  or  large  pots  early  in  spring  in  order  to  become  well 
established  before  fall.  At  any  time  after  freezing  weather 
has  come  they  can  be  transferred  to  the  forcing-house.  A 
limited  trial  made  some  years  ago  indicated  that  a  com- 
paratively high  temperature  and  artificial  pollination  are 
essential. 

SUGGESTIONS   ON   PICKING 

Picking  should  not  be  done  when  the  fruit  is  wet,  if  it 
is  possible  to  avoid  it.  Wet  fruit  will  mold  quickly,  es- 
pecially in  damp  weather,  and  is  likely  to  reach  the  con- 
sumer in  very  bad  condition.  The  filled  baskets  should 
not  be  allowed  to  stand  in  the  sun.  Gooseberries  es- 
pecially, are  very  quickly  injured.  Exposure  to  the  sun 
even  for  a  short  time  on  a  hot  day  will  change  their  color, 
giving  them  a  cooked  appearance  and  seriously  injuring 
their  market  qualities.  The  baskets  should  be  promptly 
taken  to  a  cool  shady  place,  and  from  there  to  the  market 
and  the  consumer,  with  the  least  possible  delay.  Free 
access  of  air  is  usually  considered  important,  but  if  the 
fruit  is  perfectly  dry  when  picked,  and  the  air  dry  as  well, 
this  is  unimportant  and  sometimes  even  undesirable. 
Under  such  conditions  fruit  will  remain  much  brighter 
and  fresher  if  shut  up  fairly  close.  A  spring  wagon  of 
some  kind  is  needed  in  hauling.  What  this  is  will  depend 
on  the  amount  to  be  handled.  For  large  quantities  bolster 
springs  for  the  ordinary  farm  wagon,  or  some  special  form 
of  truck  wagon,  will  be  needed.  Good  roads  over  which 
to  travel  are  also  a  great  help  in  getting  the  fruit  to  market 
in  the  proper  condition. 

Systematic  records  showing  the  number  of  quarts  picked 


30  Bush-Fruits 

by  each  picker  are  essential,  with  a  business  of  any  consid- 
erable extent.  Several  methods  are  in  use.  Perhaps  the 
simplest  is  the  use  of  printed  tickets  bearing  numbers. 
These  are  given  to  the  picker  as  the  berries  are  brought  in. 
These  can  be  surrendered  when  the  day's  picking  is  over 
and  the  total  number  credited  to  the  picker's  account. 
These  are  more  convenient  for  the  grower  than  for  the 
pickers,  since  many  of  them  will  have  no  convenient  place 
to  carry  the  tickets  while  at  work,  and  some  will  be  lost. 
This  loss  falls  on  the  picker,  since  the  grower  can  only 
redeem  the  tickets  which  are  returned. 

A  method  which  avoids  this  difficulty  is  to  use  tags  on 
which  are  printed  numbers  of  various  denominations. 
The  picker's  name  is  written  on  one  of  these  cards,  which 
is  fastened  to  the  clothing  at  some  convenient  place. 
When  fruit  is  brought  in  the  card  is  punched  to  indicate 
the  number  of  quarts,  the  total  number  being  credited  at 
the  end  of  the  day,  as-  before.  The  cards  may  be  kept  by 
the  pickers  as  vouchers  of  their  own,  if  they  wish  to  do  so. 

Clean  picking  is  an  essential  part  of  the  work,  but  dif- 
ficult to  secure.  There  must  be  a  careful  assignment  to 
rows  and  the  pickers  must  be  held  rigidly  to  the  rows  given 
them.  Even  then  the  temptation  to  take  the  finest  and 
most  easily  picked  fruit  from  the  adjoining  row,  when 
opportunity  offers,  may  cause  trouble.  With  a  number  of 
pickers  at  work,  a  careful  foreman  must  be  almost  con- 
stantly in  the  field,  to  go  over  the  work  frequently  and 
see  that  it  is  well  done. 

A  simple  method  of  holding  the  baskets  to  permit  the 
use  of  both  hands  in  picking  is  in  common  use  in  the  berry- 
fields  of  New  York  state.  A  string  or  small  rope,  or  better 


Packages  and  Marketing  31 

yet  a  flat  piece  of  tape,  is  run  through  the  corners  of  the 
basket  underneath  the  rim,  then  around  the  body  and 
back  around  the  outside  of  the  basket  and  tied.  Extra 
baskets  are  placed  in  this  one  and  the  outer  string  slipped 
up  to  hold  the  upper  ones  in  place  until  filled.  It  is  a 
very  simple  expedient  but  helps  greatly  in  the  speed  of 
picking.  Women  pickers  sometimes  accomplish  the  same 
purpose  by  fastening  their  aprons  to  the  basket. 

Two  cents  a  quart  is  the  common  price  paid  for  picking 
berries,  but  this  is  not  a  fair  compensation.  In  the  best 
of  the  picking  this  is  often  more  than  the  work  is  worth, 
while  at  the  end  of  the  season,  when  the  berries  are  small 
and  scattering,  it  is  not  enough.  Some  system  of  adjust- 
ment is  important.  Excuses  multiply  wonderfully  as  the 
picking  begins  to  fail,  unless  this  is  done.  Pickers  dis- 
appear and  the  burden  of  this  more  tedious  part  of  the 
work  falls  on  the  most  conscientious.  A  stipulation  that 
only  those  who  continue  to  the  end  of  the  season  shall 
receive  two  cents  a  quart,  others  one  and  one-half  cents, 
helps  to  some  extent.  Perhaps  a  better  way  is  to  fix  the 
price  for  each  day's  picking,  according  to  the  character 
of  the  work.  Even  this  plan  is  not  easily  worked  out,  and 
causes  some  confusion.  The  price  for  red  raspberries  is 
sometimes  three  cents  per  quart. 

PACKAGES  AND   MARKETING 

The  evolution  of  the  fruit  package  would  form  an  in- 
teresting study.  Formerly,  home-made  crates  were  much 
in  use.  The  baskets  were  even  often  purchased  in  the 
flat  and  nailed  up  at  home.  The  manufacturer,  with  his 


32  Bush-Fruits 

machines,  now  does  the  work  so  much  more  quickly  that 
the  grower  no  longer  thinks  of  doing  it  at  home.  As  the 
package  goes  with  the  fruit  so  universally,  quality  is  of 
minor  importance,  except  in  so  far  as  it  may  influence 
appearance.  The  standard  thirty-two-quart  crate  is  now 
most  generally  used.  Baskets  holding  a  full  measure  dry 
quart  have  come  to  be  the  prevailing  style.  It  is  to  be 
hoped  that  the  day  of  short  baskets  has  gone,  never  to 
reappear.  Legislative  enactment  in  many  states  has 
helped  to  bring  about  greater  uniformity.  For  bush-fruits, 
care  should  be  taken  to  secure  a  basket  which  does  not 
have  too  wide  an  opening  at  the  corners. 

Raspberries,  especially  the  red  varieties,  do  not  carry 
well  in  large  packages.  Pint  baskets  are  therefore  most 
generally  used  for  them,  unless  it  be  for  the  near-by  home 


Fig.  5.  Berry-stand  on  legs.  Fig.  6.  Eight-quart  picking 

basket. 

market.  Different  shapes  are  to  be  secured  but  they  are 
so  made  as  to  fit  into  the  ordinary  sized  berry  crate.  Cur- 
rants and  gooseberries  are  sometimes  handled  in  grape 
baskets  with  advantage.  The  demands  of  the  particular 
market  usually  govern  the  choice  of  package. 

Picking-stands  or  carriers,  holding  from  four  to  eight 
quart  baskets,  are  a  necessary  part  of  the  field  equipment 
in  gathering  the  fruit.  Different  forms  are  in  use,  some 


Cold  Storage  33 

having  legs  and  some  without.  For  bush-fruits,  the  flat- 
bottomed  picking  basket  holding  eight  quart  baskets  is 
probably  as  satisfactory  as  any.  These  are  well-made  and 
durable  and  readily  obtained  from  the  fruit  package  dealers. 
Figs.  5  and  6  illustrate  two  of  the  most  common  kinds 
in  use.  Other  forms  are  described  in  Bailey's  "Principles 
of  Fruit-growing." 

COLD   STORAGE 

Berries,  from  their  nature,  are  not  well  adapted  to  being 
kept  in  cold  storage,  yet  experiments  made  by  the  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture  l  indicate  that  they 
may  be  kept  for  short  periods  of  time  with  advantage 
under  certain  conditions.  They  may  be  stored  until  the 
next  morning,  or  even  for  two  or  three  days,  to  tide  over 
a  glutted  market.  Some  canneries  also  find  cold  storage 
useful  to  help  over  the  rush  season.  The  fruit  may  even 
be  stored  for  weeks  and  months  for  bakers'  and  confec- 
tioners' use  by  keeping  it  in  a  frozen  condition. 

Firm  fruit  of  medium  size,  grown  on  soil  not  too  moist 
nor  too  rich,  keeps  best.  Favorable  weather  at  ripening 
time  also  helps.  The  fruit  should  be  well  matured  but 
still  firm  when  packed,  and  should  be  handled  quickly 
and  carefully.  For  temporary  storage  a  temperature  of 
36°  to  40°  Fahr.  will  be  satisfactory,  although  32°  is 
better.  If  to  be  stored  a  week  or  more  30°  to  32°  is  best. 
When  frozen  for  long  keeping  5°  to  12°  is  usual.  Such 
fruit  is  suitable  for  pies  and  similar  uses.  Wrapping  the 
baskets  in  thin,  impervious  paper  helps  to  retain  the  bright 
1  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  Bull.  108. 


34  Bush-Fruits 

color  of  the  fruit  and  to  prevent  the  absorption  of  storage- 
house  odors  and  the  appearance  of  mold.  Red  raspberries 
may  be  kept  two  or  three  days,  black  raspberries  three  to 
five  days,  blackberries  seven  to  ten  days  and  currants 
two  to  three  weeks.  When  removed  from  storage  rasp- 
berries begin  to  break  down  in  ten  to  twelve  hours,  cur- 
rants not  quite  so  quickly.  , 

METHODS    OF   CROSSING   BERRIES 

The  history  of  horticulture  is  conspicuous  evidence  of 
the  fact  that  careful,  systematic  plant-breeding  has 
played  but  a  small  part  in  its  development.  Animal- 
breeders  have  long  recognized  the  necessity  of  working 
along  definite  lines,  with  clear-cut  aims  in  view.  Horti- 
culturists have  for  the  most  part  been  content  to  take 
what  they  found,  and  wait  for  something  better.  In  the 
history  of  American  varieties  of  fruits,  such  phrases  as 
"a  chance  seedling,"  "found  growing,"  and  the  like,  are 
of  very  common  occurrence.  There  is  good  reason  for 
this  in  the  fact  that  the  rewards  for  systematic  work  in 
plant-breeding  have  not  been  sufficient  to  repay  the  effort. 
Results  are  uncertain,  and  often  disappointing.  If  suc- 
cessful the  world  reaps  the  benefit,  rather  than  the  breeder. 
Yet  there  is  no  other  way  to  make  sure  and  definite  prog- 
ress. The  more  definite  the  aim,  and  the  more  clearly  the 
scientific  principles  underlying  the  problems  of  plant- 
breeding  ,are  kept  in  mind,  the  more  certain  will  be  the 
results.1 

5  These  principles  are  fully  discussed  in  Bailey's  "Plant-Breeding;" 
latest  edition  is  by  Bailey  &  Gilbert. 


Methods  of  Crossing  Berries  35 

The  terms  crossing  and  hybridizing  may  sound  very 
scientific  to  the  novitiate,  and  he  may  think  that  the 
operations  lie  within  a  field  beyond  his  reach.  Yet  there 
is  nothing  particularly  difficult  about  the  operation.  It 
is,  for  the  most  part,  slow  and  delicate  work,  and  requires 
great  care  to  insure  purity  of  results,  if  an  accurate  record 
of  what  is  accomplished  is  desired.  We  have  no  right  to 
assert  that  a  plant  is  a  cross  unless  we  know  beyond  ques- 
tion that  no  other  pollen  than  that  of  a  given  parent 
reached  the  stigma  of  the  flower  from  which  the  seed  was 
developed.  The  mere  fact  that  pollen  of  a  given  variety 
has  been  applied  to  the  stigma  of  another  variety  is  no 
evidence  that  crossing  has  taken  place. 

The  methods  of  crossing  vary  with  the  character  and 
structure  of  the  flower  in  question,  but  the  essential  fea- 
ture is  the  same  in  all  cases.  The  pollen  of  the  flower 
which  is  to  serve  as  the  female  parent  must  be  carefully 
and  completely  removed  before  it  ripens,  then  the  flower 
must  be  carefully  covered  until  the  stigma  is  ready  to 
receive  pollen  and  admit  of  fecundation.  The  flowers  of 
the  male  parent  should  also  be  carefully  covered  before 
opening,  to  prevent  the  admixture  of  pollen  from  any 
other  plants.  At  the  proper  time  this  pollen  is  conveyed 
to  the  stigma  of  the  protected  flower  on  the  female  plant, 
and  the  flower  again  covered  until  it  has  reached  such  a 
stage  that  fecundation  is  no  longer  possible.  If  properly 
fertilized  by  the  pollen  applied,  the  stigma  very  soon 
withers,  but  if  not,  it  may  remain  in  a  receptive  condition 
for  several  days. 

In  crossing  brambles  or  groselles,  select  a  cluster  which 
has  several  buds  nearly  ready  to  open,  if  such  a  one  is  to 


36  Bush-Fruits 

be  found.  Cut  off  all  younger  buds,  all  which  have  already 
begun  to  open,  all  flowers  and  all  fruit  which  has  already 
set,  leaving  only  the  few  unopened  buds  which  are  of 
about  the  same  age.  The  next  step  is  to  remove  all 
stamens  from  these  buds.  As  the  number  of  stamens  is 
large,  to  remove  each  one  separately  would  be  a  tedious 
task.  Fortunately,  in  the  rose  and  saxifrage  families,  to 
which  these  fruits  belong,  the  stamens  are  borne  on  the 
calyx.  This  enables  us  to  get  rid  of  them  all  by  simply 
cutting  away  the  calyx.  This  can  be  conveniently  done 
either  with  fine,  sharp-pointed  scissors,  or  with  a  spatula 
made  from  a  pin  stuck  in  the  end  of  a  stick,  then  flattened 
and  sharpened  at  the  edges.  Turn  the  bud 
(Fig.  7)  bottom  side  up,  and  cut  a  circle  around 
the  stem  not  far  from  it.  The  whole  calyx 
will  then  come  away,  taking  the  stamens  with 
it.  After  all  the  buds  have  been  thus  treated, 
Fig  7  care  being  taken  that  no  anthers  are  left,  the 
Raspberry  cluster  is  covered  with  a  paper  sack.  Half  or 

bud  ready  , 

to  emascu-  quarter-pound  grocers  sacks  answer  the  pur- 
pose well.  If  the  open  end  of  the  bag  is 
moistened,  the  paper  can  be  pressed  more  closely  about 
the  stem.  Some  flat  material  is  best  for  tying,  raffia 
being  most  convenient  if  at  hand.  One  or  more  clus- 
ters on  the  variety  which  is  to  be  used  as  the  male  par- 
ent should  be  covered  in  the  same  way,  in  order  to  have 
pure  pollen  to  apply  at  the  right  time.  When  first  emascu- 
lated, a  raspberry  bud  will  have  much  the  appearance 
shown  at  left  in  Fig.  8,  but  usually  in  about  two  days,  in 
warm  weather,  it  will  have  developed  far  enough  to  be 
ready  for  pollination.  It  will  then  have  the  appearance 


Methods  of  Crossing  Berries  37 

seen  at  the  center  in  Fig.  8;  the  styles  will  be  extended 
and  spreading,  and  the  stigmas  will  have  a  sticky  look,  in- 
dicating that  they  are  in  a  receptive  condition.  Black- 
berries often  require  several  days 
to  sufficiently  develop  after 
emasculation,  especially  late  in 
the  season,  if  the  weather  is 
cool. 

When  the  stigmas  are  ready,  rig.  8.  Raspberry  crossing. 

nnrnvpr   tho  nliiatAr   frr»m    whiph         Left'      emasculated       bud. 
'OVei  )m   wmcn        Center,  ready  to  pollinate. 

the    pollen  is   to  be    obtained,      Right  result  of  incomplete 

fecundation. 

select  a  blossom  from  which  it 

dusts  out  freely,  and  apply  it  to  the  ones  to  be  ferti- 
lized. The  pollen  may  be  collected  and  applied  with  a 
spatula  or  earner s-hair  brush,  but  if  in  the  right  condi- 
tion, applying  the  flower  direct  is  the  simplest  way.  The 
pollinated  cluster  must  then  be  at  once  covered,  as  before, 
and  left  for  a  week  or  ten  days.  At  the  end  of  that  time, 
if  all  the  stigmas  have  shriveled  away,  the  paper  sack  may 
be  replaced  by  one  of  mosquito  netting,  which  will  admit 
light  and  air,  but  still  protect  the  fruit  from  birds  and 
boys. 

In  case  of  the  brambles,  the  result  will  often  be  an  imper- 
fect berry.  Only  a  few  of  the  akenes  are  likely  to  be  fecun- 
dated, and  there  may  not  be  enough  to  fill  out  all  the  space 
on  the  receptacle.  Such  a  fruit  is  shown  at  the  right  in 
Fig.  8.  When  the  fruit  is  ripe  the  seeds  should  be  planted 
and  cared  for  as  heretofore  directed  for  growing  plants 
from  seed,  except  that  especial  care  should  be  used  in  all 
the  operations  to  avoid  mixture,  or  injury  to  seeds,  or 
young  plants.  Crossing  requires  much  time,  and  accidents 


38  Bush-Fruits 

are  liable  to  occur  all  along  the  line,  so  that  the  result  of 
a  summer's  work  may  be,  in  the  end,  only  a  few  plants, 
most  or  all  of  which  are  worthless.  Yet  persistent  effort 
in  this  line  should  be  encouraged,  and  in  time  the  results 
are  likely  to  repay  all  the  attempts  made. 

While  located  in  Rhode  Island,  the  writer  grew  many 
raspberry  seedlings  which  were  obtained  by  definite 
methods  of  crossing.  He  found  that  as  a  rule  the  seedlings 
of  a  given  cross  showed  well-defined  tendencies  in  certain 
directions.  The  greater  number  resembled  each  other 
rather  closely.  They  were  usually  intermediate  in  char- 
acter between  the  two  parents,  some  more  closely  resem- 
bling one  parent  and  some  the  other.  Here  and  there  a 
plant  would  show  enough  variation  to  be  worthy  of  note. 
Of  the  hundreds  grown  only  a  very  few  gave  sufficient 
promise  to  make  their  further  propagation  seem  desirable. 
Yet  this  is  just  the  line  which  must  be  followed  if  real 
progress  is  to  be  made.  It  is  not  the  kind  of  work  to  bring 
popular  approval  or  upon  which  claims  for  increased  ap- 
propriations can  safely  be  based.  It  should  be  undertaken 
only  by  those  who  have  persistency  of  purpose  and  who  can 
hope  to  continue  it  for  many  years.  Long-continued  effort, 
wisely  applied,  building  upon  what  has  already  been  ac- 
complished, will  in  time  bring  results  of  real  value,  but  is 
not  likely  to  win  much  loud  acclaim  for  the  worker.  He 
must  be  content  to  discard  hundreds  of  his  productions, 
for  each  one  of  value.  It  requires  courage  to  do  this. 
Each  seedling  is  a  distinct  variety  and  the  one  plant  the 
only  one  of  its  kind  in  existence. 

Work  in  breeding  raspberries  has  been  carried  on  for  a 
number  of  years  at  the  Geneva,  New  York,  Experiment 


Methods  of  Crossing  Berries  39 

station  with  interesting  results.  A  number  of  valuable 
varieties  have  also  been  secured.  Their  work  has  estab- 
lished beyond  question  the  hybrid  origin  of  the  purple- 
cane  type,  Rubus  negledus.  Pure  seedlings  of  Columbian, 
a  variety  of  this  class,  reproduced  the  characters  of  the 
parent  much  more  nearly  than  was  to  have  been  expected. 
All  were  purple  in  color  and  none  propagated  by  suckers. 
In  hybrids  produced  by  crossing  two  black-caps  with  a 
red  raspberry  the  seedlings  in  one  case  were  all  purple, 
while  in  the  other,  10  yellows  appeared  among  the  289 
seedlings.  Color  is  apparently  a  Mendellian  character. 
Some  varieties  of  black-caps  are  evidently  pure  black, 
while  others  carry  yellow  as  a  recessive  character.  The 
same  principle  seems  to  hold  with  red  varieties  also.  A 
number  of  seedlings  of  Cumberland  were  strictly  dwarf 
in  character.  These  were  quite  different  from  normal 
plants  which  lacked  vigor.  The  nodes  were  as  numerous 
as  usual  but  many  of  them  were  much  shorter,  sometimes 
not  over  a  quarter  of  an  inch  long.  Many  of  the  leaves 
were  small  and  easily  broken  from  the  stem  and  the  canes 
were  thickly  covered  with  soft  spines.  Many  of  these 
dwarfs  were  less  than  a  foot  in  height  and  the  tallest  were 
not  over  two  feet. 

A  correlation  appears  to  exist  between  leaf  and  fruit 
color.  Red  and  purple  sorts  have  a  tinge  of  red  on  the 
leaves  and  young  canes,  which  is  entirely  lacking  in  yellow 
varieties. 

Hybrids  were  produced  by  crossing  a  red  raspberry 
and  a  blackberry  with  Rubus  odoratus.  The  resulting 
seedlings  from  the  blackberry  were  lacking  in  vigor  and 
soon  died.  Those  from  the  raspberry,  however,  grew  well 


40  Bush-Fruits 

and  bloomed  freely,  their  characters  leaving  no  doubt  as 
to  their  hybrid  origin.  The  experiments  are  reported  in 
Bulletin  417  of  the  Experiment  Station,  Geneva,  N.  Y.,  to 
which  the  reader  is  referred  for  a  full  account  of  the  results. 
Valuable  work  has  also  been  done  at  the  South  Dakota 
Experiment  Station  in  breeding  varieties  which  will  endure 
the  climate  of  the  northern  Plains  region.  Such  lines  of 
work  are  to  be  commended,  for  the  grower  soon  learns 
that  among  the  factors  which  make  for  success  in  his 
undertaking,  the  adaptability  of  the  varieties  which  he 
plants  is  of  primary  importance. 


PART  II 
THE  BRAMBLES 

CHAPTER  II 
THE  RED  RASPBERRIES 

THKEE  types  of  fruit  are  included  in  this  discussion  of 
the  red  raspberry — the  foreign  or  European  class,  the  true 
American  reds,  and  the  hybrid  or  purple-cane  group. 
These  types  are  not  clearly  defined.  The  American  and 
European  types  are  very  similar  in  many  respects,  while 
the  hybrid  type  includes  varieties  of  nearly  all  gradations 
between  the  reds  and  the  black-caps.  Typical  varieties 
of  the  first  class  are  Antwerp  and  Fontenay,  of  the  second, 
Cuthbert,  and  of  the  third  Shaffer  and  Columbian. 


SOIL 

The  red  raspberry  is  not  fastidious  as  regards  soils. 

It  can  be  made  to  thrive  on  almost  any  average  land, 

though  extremes  of  any  kind  are  naturally  to  be  avoided. 

An  upland,  sandy,  or  clay  loam  will  prove  satisfactory  if 

well  drained.    The  impression  has  been  general  that  the 

lighter  loams  are  best,  but  Wilson  found  in  a  study  of  the 

raspberry  industry  of  New  York  1  that  plantations  on 

1  Cornell  Reading-Courses,  Vol.  II,  No.  36. 

41 


42  Bush-Fruits 

clay  loam,  although  not  as  numerous  as  those  on  other 
soils,  gave  the  heavier  yields. 

The  moisture-content  is  more  important  than  the  char- 
acter of  the  soil  itself.  Wet  land  will  insure  partial  failure 
at  least.  On  such  land  the  plants  will  often  heave  badly 
and  suffer  much  from  winter-killing.  The  growth  is 
generally  feeble  and  the  outcome  unsatisfactory.  Yet 
no  fruit  suffers  more  quickly  from  drought  at  ripening 
time.  The  demand  is,  therefore,  for  a  soil  which  is  well 
drained,  so  that  it  is  never  surfeited  with  water,  but  it 
must  also  be  retentive  of  moisture  so  as  to  supply  the 
plant's  needs  during  the  growing  season.  A  liberal  supply 
of  humus  is  a  great  aid  in  this  respect. 

A  reasonably  fertile  soil  is  desirable.  The  commercial 
grower  is  not  likely  to  be  troubled  by  too  much  fertility 
in  his  soil.  In  the  home-garden,  however,  a  patch  of  ground 
may  sometimes  be  chosen  which  is  too  rich  for  best  results. 
Ground  which  has  been  manured  heavily,  year  after  year, 
or  which  receives  the  wash  from  a  barn-yard,  may  con- 
tain too  much  nitrogen.  Under  these  conditions  the 
growth  will  be  rank  and  the  canes  tender.  Excessive 
winter  injury  and  diminished  fruitfulness  are  the  natural 
results.  Vigorous  growing  varieties  may  thrive  better  on 
infertile  soils  than  varieties  of  weaker  growth. 

THE   SITE   AND   EXPOSURE 

The  cooler  and  shadier  the  spot,  the  finer  the  berries. 
This  holds  true  with  wild  and  cultivated  berries  alike. 
If  a  choice  is  available,  a  northern  or  northeastern  exposure 
is  therefore  to  be  preferred,  but  this  is  not  essential  and 


Fertilizers 


43 


seldom  figures  largely  in  the  results  of  a  plantation.  A 
windbreak  on  the  side  from  which  the  prevailing  winds 
come  will  assist  in  making  conditions  more  favorable. 
These  considerations  are  much  more  important  in  the  mid- 
continental  regions,  which  are  subject  to  excessive  heat 
and  long-continued  droughts,  than  in  more  favorable 
localities. 

Red  raspberries  blossom  so  unevenly  that  spring  frosts 
are  less  likely  to  prove  serious  than  with  most  other  fruits. 
Not  all  of  the  blossoms  are  likely  to  be  in  condition  to  be 
injured  at  any  one  time.  Elevation  is  therefore  of  less 
importance,  and  the  better  moisture  conditions  which 
often  prevail  on  lowlands  may  make  such  a  location  pref- 
erable. 

FERTILIZERS 

On  productive  land,  heavy  fertilizing  of  red  raspberries 
is  unnecessary.  Yet  the  following  table  compiled  by 
Wilson  *  shows  that  under  average  field  conditions  in  New 
York  fertilizers  are  beneficial : 


METHOD 

Number 
of  farms 

Number 
of  acres 

Yield 
per  acre 
(quarts) 

Income 
per  acre 

No  manure,  nor  commercial  ferti- 
lizer   

39 
13 
10 
21 

81 
14 
30 
23 

1,168 
1,527 
1,439 
1,472 

$116.69 
176.69 
142.85 
170.50 

Manure  and  commercial  fertilizer 
Commercial  fertilizer  only  
Manure  only  .  . 

When   both  manure  and  commercial  fertilizers  were 
used,  they  were  applied  in  alternate  years.     These  re- 
1  Cornell  Reading-Courses,  Vol.  II,  No.  36. 


44  Bush-Fruits 

suits  show  that  the  methods  of  fertilizing  actually  em- 
ployed on  these  farms  increased  the  yield  about  311  quarts 
to  the  acre  on  the  average,  and  the  returns  about  $46.66. 
From  this  amount  would  need  to  be  deducted  the  cost 
of  fertilizer  and  value  of  manure,  together  with  the  cost 
of  application  and  the  cost  of  picking  and  marketing  the 
additional  yield,  in  order  to  show  the  profit  obtained. 
The  amount  left  would  not  be  large.  Some  fields  doubt- 
less gave  a  profit  for  the  materials  applied  and  others  not. 
When  stable-manure  is  readily  available,  it  is  doubtless 
as  satisfactory  a  fertilizer  as  can  be  used  on  average  soils, 
if  applied  in  moderate  quantities.  Heavy  applications 
may  induce  too  much  cane-growth,  with  poorly  developed 
fruit-buds.  A  light  dressing  of  stable-manure,  supple- 
mented with  mineral  elements  in  the  form  of  chemicals 
is  likely  to  prove  most  satisfactory.  Little  nitrogen  is 
required.  If  leguminous  cover-crops  are  used,  they  alone 
may  furnish  a  sufficient  amount.  Phosphorus  is  needed, 
but  not  in  large  quantities.  Potash  may  or  may  not  be 
needed.  It  may  be  supplied  in  muriate  or  wood-ashes. 
Fifty  pounds  of  muriate  to  the  acre,  annually,  will  gener- 
ally be  enough.  Phosphoric  acid  may  be  supplied  in 
basic  slag,  ground  bone,  acid  phosphate  or  untreated 
rock.  Ground  bone  furnishes  some  nitrogen  and  potash 
as  well.  It  is  an  excellent  fertilizer  for  all  fruits,  but  often 
expensive.  Judgment  and  caution  are  needed  by  the  com- 
mercial grower  in  the  use  of  fertilizers.  Used  wisely  they 
may  pay  a  handsome  profit,  used  unwisely  they  may 
bring  serious  loss.  He  alone  can  determine  what  is  best. 
Let  him  first  give  heed  to  the  humus  supply  of  his  soil,  its 
chemical  needs  later. 


Propagation  45 

PROPAGATION 

Propagation  of  the  common  varieties  of  red  raspberries 
is  a  simple  matter.  Most  kinds  sucker  so  freely  that  the 
grower  is  more  concerned  with  destroying  the  plants  than 
with  increasing  them.  These  young  plants  may  be  taken 
up  and  re-set  at  almost  any  time  during  the  year.  In 
commercial  work,  where  plants  are  to  be  shipped,  the  best 
time  is  early  in  spring.  The  shoots  of  the  previous  year 
are  then  moved,  while  they  are  still  dormant.  This  should 
be  done  early  for  best  results. 

For  re-setting  on  the  home  grounds,  the  young  shoots 
of  the  current  season  may  be  lifted  when  six  to  eight  inches 
high,  and  replanted  much  as  tomato  or  cabbage  plants 
are  handled.  With  ordinary  care  this  practice  will  prove 
entirely  successful  and  may  often  give  opportunity  to 
hasten  the  time  of  starting  a  plantation.  If  plenty  of 
plants  are  available  so  that  their  destruction  by  summer 
tillage  is  unimportant,  early  autumn  is  an  excellent  time 
to  do  the  work,  the  first  part  of  September  being  pre- 
ferred. The  plants  are  then  mature  enough  to  handle 
readily  and  have  time  to  become  well  established  before 
winter. 

Some  of  the  purple-cane  varieties  propagate  by  tips, 
after  the  manner  of  black-caps.  Others,  which  throw  up 
suckers,  do  so  very  sparingly.  With  these,  root-cuttings 
or  root  injury  may  be  needed.  If  a  root  is  broken  or  in- 
jured, it  will  naturally  put  out  a  sucker  at  that  point. 
Cutting  or  bruising  the  roots  may  therefore  be  desirable 
at  times.  Root-cuttings,  in  the  manner  described  for 
blackberries,  may  be  used.  These  are  commonly  made 


46  Bush-Fruits 

in  autumn.  The  roots  are  cut  into  pieces  three  or  four 
inches  long  and  stored  for  the  winter  in  sand  or  moss  in  a 
cellar. 

PLANTING 

The  general  discussion  regarding  soil  preparation  and 
methods  of  planting  need  not  be  here  repeated.  The  time 
of  planting  may  vary,  as  above  mentioned,  depending 
on  circumstances,  but  early  spring  or  early  autumn  are 
generally  to  be  preferred.  The  plants,  whenever  they  are 
moved,  should  be  carefully  lifted  from  the  soil,  so  as  to 
carry  with  them  some  portion  of  the  horizontal  root  from 
which  they  sprang.  Without  care  in  this  regard  many  will 
be  broken  off  at  the  point  of  union  with  the  parent  root. 
Such  plants  have  so  few  lateral  roots  that  they  make  a 
poor  start. 

Rows  are  commonly  placed  six  feet  apart,  with  the 
plants  about  three  feet  apart  in  the  row.  Some  growers 
prefer  a  wider  space  than  this,  especially  with  vigorous 
varieties,  on  strong  soil.  As  the  plantation  grows  older 
the  hedge-row  widens  and  sometimes  leaves  too  little 
room  for  cultivation  and  picking.  If  planted  in  check- 
rows, to  be  cultivated  both  ways,  five  feet  apart  each 
way  is  a  good  distance.  A  filler  system  has  been  sug- 
gested, where  it  is  feasible  to  check-row  and  cultivate  both 
ways.  The  idea  is  to  set  the  plants  twice  as  thick  in  one 
direction  as  they  are  to  eventually  remain,  then  tear  out 
every  other  clump  after  two  crops  have  been  borne  and 
cultivate  both  ways.  The  advantage  would  be  a  more 
complete  utilization  of  the  land  at  the  beginning.  The 
suckering  habit  of  the  true  reds  tends  to  develop  a  hedge- 


Pollination  47 

row  soon  and  care  must  be  taken  to  prevent  the  plants 
from  becoming  so  thick  that  they  cannot  do  well.  The 
cultivator  must  be  kept  running  close  to  keep  the  row 
from  getting  too  wide.  Thinning  out  the  plants  left  may 
also  be  necessary  at  times. 

Partial  shade,  especially  in  the  hot,  dry  climates  of  the 
West,  is  an  advantage  to  these  fruits.  This  is  not  easy 
to  secure  without  injury  from  the  roots  of  the  trees  which 
produce  it.  In  the  home-garden  it  may  be  feasible  to  do 
this  at  times.  It  may  also  prove  desirable  to  plant  among 
trees  in  the  home-garden,  even  though  the  results  are  not 
as  good  as  in  the  open.  If  land  is  limited  this  will  make 
it  possible  to  utilize  it  to  better  advantage.  It  may  also 
insure  better  tillage  for  the  trees  than  they  might  other- 
wise secure. 


POLLINATION 

The  need  of  planting  different  varieties  together  to 
insure  proper  fecundation  of  the  blossoms  is  a  recognized 
factor  in  orchard  planting.  A  similar  need  of  interpol- 
lination  is  sometimes  evident  among  bush-fruits.  A 
number  of  varieties,  both  of  red  raspberries  and  black- 
berries, appear  to  be  partially  sterile  when  planted  alone. 
The  Cuthbert,  our  most  satisfactory  commercial  variety, 
bears  an  abundance  of  pollen  and  is  apparently  fully  self- 
fertile.  Its  blossoming  season  is  also  long;  it  is  therefore 
an  excellent  sort  to  plant  with  other  reds.  It  is  al- 
ways safe  to  plant  different  varieties  of  the  same  fruit 
near  together.  Nothing  will  be  lost  and  much  may  be 
gained. 


48  Bush-Fruits 


TILLAGE 

Tillage  is  important,  as  elsewhere,  to  make  the  ground 
loose  and  friable,  unlock  plant-food  and  diminish  evapora- 
tion. In  the  red  raspberry  plantation  there  is  the  addi- 
tional need  of  destroying  suckers.  To  this  end,  a  cultiva- 
tor with  teeth  square  on  the  end  instead  of  pointed,  or 
with  a  knife  attachment,  as  described  elsewhere,  is  use- 
ful. This  is  assuming  that  fruit  is  the  object.  If  plant- 
production  were  the  aim  such  an  implement  would  not  be 
wanted. 

Thorough  tillage,  coupled  with  an  abundant  humus 
supply  in  the  soil,  affords  the  most  feasible  means  within 
the  control  of  the  grower  of  maintaining  the  moisture 
content  of  the  soil  during  the  fruiting  period,  when  it  is 
so  much  needed.  These  are  better  than  irrigation,  in 
semi-arid  regions,  and  far  more  easily  obtained,  under 
most  conditions.  Late  tillage,  until  time  of  frost,  is  per- 
fectly safe  with  the  red  raspberry,  and  gives  good  results. 
Deep  tillage  is  undesirable,  since  it  breaks  more  roots, 
thus  causing  more  suckers  to  spring  up.  A  plow  is  some- 
times used  to  cut  down  the  width  of  the  row  in  older  plan- 
tations but  is  not  desirable.  If  it  becomes  necessary  to 
use  it  the  furrows  should  be  made  as  shallow  as  possible. 

PRUNING 

The  pruning  and  training  of  red  raspberries  differs 
widely  in  different  localities  and  among  different  growers. 
Summer  pruning,  consisting  of  pinching  back  the  growing 
cane  when  young,  to  induce  branching,  was  formerly  in 


Pruning  49 

use.  A  few  growers  still  practice  it  but  most  commercial 
growers  do  not. 

Pinching  back  the  canes  in  summer  seems  to  have  a 
tendency  to  increase  the  number  of  suckers  thrown  up, 
which  in  itself  is  a  disadvantage  unless  the  plantation  is 
being  run  for  purposes  of  propagation.  Unless  pinched 
low  while  still  very  young,  the  plants  do  not  throw  out 
strong  branches,  like  the  black-caps,  possibly  owing  to 
the  fact  that  the  energy  of  the  plant  is  more  readily  di- 
rected in  the  line  of  producing  suckers  than  in  the  line  of 
developing  branches.  The  effect  of  stopping  the  cane 
after  it  has  reached  a  height  of  three  feet  or  more,  is  only 
to  force  into  growth  lateral  buds  which  might  better  re- 
main dormant  until  the  following  spring.  As  a  rule,  they 
make  only  an  imperfect  development,  do  not  become  well 
ripened  before  growth  stops,  and  are  apt  to  be  more  or 
less  injured  by  the  following  winter. 

Both  personal  experience  and  the  information  gathered 
from  the  experience  of  others,  leads  the  writer  to  believe 
that  the  better  way  to  treat  the  red  raspberry  is  to  allow  it 
to  grow  unmolested  during  the  whole  season,  merely  cut- 
ting the  canes  back  to  within  three,  or  in  some  cases  even 
two  feet  of  the  ground  the  following  spring.  If  the  canes 
are  to  be  supported  by  stakes  or  trellis,  as  is  sometimes 
done  in  garden  culture,  they  may  be  left  longer,  say  four,  or 
even  five  feet.  Treated  in  this  way,  the  canes  will  throw 
out  a  sufficient  number  of  laterals  in  spring  to  produce 
all  the  fruit  which  -a  plant  ought  to  carry.  Moreover, 
these  branches  are  vigorous  and  healthy,  and  in  better 
condition  to  develop  a  fine  crop  of  fruit  than  if  produced 
the  preceding  year,  weakened  by  the  winter  and  then 


50 


Bush-Fruits 


called  upon  to  throw  out  fruit-bearing  sho6ts.  The  les- 
sened expense  of  pruning  is  an  added  advantage  secured 
by  this  method  of  training. 

An  exception  to  this  plan  may  be  advisable  in  case  of 
young  and  vigorous  plantations,  or  with  an  unusually 
rampant-growing  variety.  Young  plants  have  not  the 
root  development  to  start  out  so  stocky  a  cane,  and  nat- 


Fig.  9.  A  raspberry  bush  well 
trained. 


Fig.  10.  A  raspberry  bush  improperly 
trained. 


urally  produce  a  more  slender  and  comparatively  longer 
growth.  Allowing  such  main  canes  to  grow  uninterrupt- 
edly, and  cutting  them  back  to  the  desired  height  the 
following  spring,  may  remove  too  much  of  the  wood,  and 
leave  only  the  weaker  and  poorly  developed  buds  near  the 
base.  For  this  reason  some  good  growers  find  it  an  ad- 
vantage to  pinch  back  the  plants  the  first  one  or  two 
years,  but  not  after  that.  Whenever  this  is  done,  the 


Autumn  Fruiting  51 

important  point  to  remember  is  to  merely  pinch  off  the 
tip  while  the  plants  are  young  and  only  a  few  inches  high. 
Six  to  eighteen  inches  is  better  than  higher,  provided  it 
is  done  when  the  plant  reaches  that  point,  but  they  should 
never  be  allowed  to  grow  higher  and  then  be  cut  back  to 
this  point.  If  stopped  at  this  early  age,  the  main  cane 
will  increase  in  height  somewhat,  and  will  be  able  to  throw 
out  strong  and  vigorous  branches,  forming  a  stocky,  self- 
supporting  bush,  well  prepared  to  endure  the  winter  and 
produce  a  good  crop  of  fruit  the  following  year.  Such  a 
bush  of  the  Cuthbert  variety  is  shown  in  Fig.  9.  An 
undesirable  form  of  training  is  shown  in  Fig.  10. 

Staking  or  trellising  is  sometimes  practiced  in  garden 
culture,  and  even  by  commercial  growers,  in  some  regions. 
If  the  hill  system,  with  check  rows,  is  followed,  a  stake  is 
set  in  the  center  and  the  canes  loosely  tied  to  this.  In  the 
row  method  a  wire  is  strung  on  posts,  to  which  the  canes 
are  fastened.  A  little  pamphlet  entitled  "New  Raspberry 
and  Blackberry  Culture"  by  J.  F.  Littooy,  of  Everett, 
Washington,  strongly  recommends  the  latter  plan  for  that 
region.  Climate  and  soil  fertility  doubtless  have  much  to 
do  with  the  desirability  of  supports.  In  the  experience 
of  many  growers  in  the  eastern  states,  supports  are  not 
necessary.  Where  canes  grow  very  tall  and  vigorous  a 
heavier  yield  can  doubtless  be  obtained  by  tying  them  up 
and  leaving  more  wood  at  the  spring  pruning. 


AUTUMN   FRUITING 

Some  varieties  of  raspberries  have  a  tendency  to  bear 
fruit  in  autumn  on  wood  of  the  current  season's  growth. 


52  Bush-Fruits 

It  has  been  suggested  that  removing  the  regular  bearing 
canes  in  spring  would  encourage  this  late-fruiting  habit. 
A  single  experiment  was  made  by  the  author,  many  years 
ago,  on  the  grounds  of  The  Cornell  University  Horticul- 
tural Department.  Plants  of  Fontenay,  Cuthbert  and 
Shaffer  were  mowed  off  with  a  scythe  in  the  spring,  be- 
fore the  young  canes  started.  The  results  were  very  def- 
inite, but  not  encouraging.  The  young  canes  made  a 
vigorous  growth,  but  not  a  single  cluster  of  flowers  ap- 
peared on  either  the  Cuthbert  or  Shaffer  plants.  There 
were  two  or  three  fine  clusters  of  fruit  among  the  Fontenay 
plants  thus  treated,  but  this  is  one  of  the  European  varie- 
ties, which  are  characterized  by  more  or  less  continuous 
fruiting  throughout  the  season.  Just  as  good  clusters 
were  to  be  found,  and  apparently  as  many  of  them,  where 
the  plants  were  treated  in  the  ordinary  manner. 

The  only  advantage  in  autumn  fruiting  is  the  production 
of  a  small  amount  of  fresh  fruit  for  family  use  late  in  the 
season,  but  this  trial  seems  to  show  little  prospect  of  in- 
ducing tardy  fruiting  by  means  of  encouraging  a  late 
seasonal  growth. 

Weather  conditions  appear  to  influence  this  tendency. 
In  occasional  years  the  wild  red  raspberries  will  bear  con- 
siderable fruit  in  autumn.  At  times  throughout  parts 
of  northern  Pennsylvania,  wild  berries  have  even  been 
brought  into  the  villages  for  sale  in  October.  In  1915,  a 
very  wet  season,  autumn  fruit  was  abundant. 


Uses  53 


HARVESTING  AND  MARKETING 

Red  raspberries  should  be  picked  often,  every  other  day 
if  possible.  They  deteriorate  rapidly  after  ripening, 
whether  on  the  bushes  or  off.  Being  a  soft  berry,  easily 
crushed  and  difficult  to  ship,  they  should  be  started  on  the 
way  to  market  as  soon  as  possible.  The  longer  they  re- 
main after  ripening,  the  softer,  duller  in  color,  and  poorer 
in  quality  they  become.  They  are  best  marketed  in  pint 
baskets,  though  the  quart  basket  is  often  used.  The  pint 
baskets  are  oblong  in  shape  and  the  size  is  such  that  the 
ordinary  bushel  crate  will  hold  sixty  of  them.  Settling 
and  crushing  from  the  weight  of  the  fruit  itself  is  largely 
avoided  and  the  fruit  reaches  the  consumer  in  much  better 
condition  than  when  marketed  in  larger  baskets.  The  fruit 
should  not  be  picked  when  wet  and  should  be  kept  in  a 
cool  well-ventilated  place  until  sent  away.  A  home 
market  is  best,  and  except  in  localities  where  they  are 
largely  grown,  is  usually  at  hand.  The  fruit  seems  to  be  a 
universal  favorite  and  is  in  demand  almost  everywhere. 


USES 

The  red  raspberry  is  essentially  a  dessert  fruit  and  one 
which  should  reach  the  consumer  promptly.  It  is  also 
used  by  canners,  and  this  may  afford  a  good  outlet  to 
growers  rightly  located.  It  can  be  readily  evaporated, 
but  this  is  seldom  done.  The  shrinkage  is  so  great  that  the 
price  at  which  the  dried  product  must  sell  in  order  to 
yield  a  fair  return  for  the  fresh  fruit  seems  high  to  the  pur- 
chaser. A  heaping  quart  basketful  of  fruit  will  weigh 


54  Bush-Fruits 

about  four  ounces  when  dried,  varying  somewhat  with 
seasons,  variety,  and  the  like.  Seven  or  eight  pounds  of 
dried  product  to  the  bushel  of  fresh  fruit  is,  therefore,  all 
that  can  be  expected.  Furthermore,  the  true  red  varieties 
are  dull  and  unattractive  in  color,  when  dried,  which  is 
unfavorable  to  their  sale.  The  quality  is  excellent,  but 
appearance  counts  for  more  in  the  sale  of  goods. 

Varieties  of  the  purple-cane  class,  like  Shaffer  and  Co- 
lumbian, are  much  better  for  evaporating  than  the  true 
reds.  The  yield  is  heavier  and  the  quality  and  flavor  are 
excellent.  They  also  possess  a  much  more  attractive 
appearance  when  dried  than  does  the  Cuthbert.  It  would 
seem  that  under  some  conditions,  evaporating  fruit  of  this 
class  might  prove  profitable,  although  it  is  not  being 
done  to  any  great  extent.  As  an  outlet  for  surplus  fruit 
in  times  of  glutted  markets,  should  such  occur,  the  prac- 
tice of  evaporating  commends  itself  if  facilities  are  at 
hand  for  doing  it.  To  plant  even  the  purple-cane  varie 
for  evaporating  alone  would  probably  be  unwise. 

DURATION   OF   PLANTATIONS 

Red  raspberries  may  be  kept  in  fruit  for  a  number  of 
years  from  the  same  plantation  if  it  seems  wise  to  do  so. 
Wilson  says  1  that  eight  to  ten  crops  of  berries  may  be 
expected  from  a  patch,  provided  the  plants  are  given  good 
care  and  are  kept  free  from  disease.  In  a  study  of  results 
obtained  on  different  farms  in  New  York  state  he  found 
that  a  few  plantings  ten  years  old  were  yielding  as  heavily 
as  the  average  of  those  from  three  to  five  years  old.  One 
1  The  Cornell  Reading-Courses,  Vol.  II,  No.  36. 


Duration  of  Plantations  55 

plantation  of  Cuthbert  near  Seneca  Lake  in  New  York 
state  is  said  to  be  at  least  thirty-six  years  old,  and  is  still 
bearing  large  nice  fruit.  The  practical  question  is  not  how 
long  can  they  be  made  to  last,  but  how  long  will  it  pay  to 
keep  them.  Many  causes  tend  to  weaken  the  plants  and 
reduce  their  productiveness  as  they  grow  older.  If  they 
are  healthy  and  vigorous,  as  they  should  be,  the  constant 
increase  of  suckers  soon  fills  the  row  so  full  that  they  begin 
to  suffer  from  crowding,  unless  severely  thinned.  This  can 
be  done,  and  should  be,  but  is  often  neglected.  Pulling 
these  suckers  is  considered  better  than  cutting  them.  This 
is  readily  done  by  using  heavy  leather  mittens,  but  is  not 
easy  work.  As  the  rows  increase  in  width,  grass  and  weeds 
gain  entrance  and  are  not  easily  dislodged.  All  this  means 
greater  expense  as  the  plants  grow  older.  Diseases  and 
insects  may  also  become  more  troublesome,  not  only  re- 
ducing the  yield  of  the  plantation  itself  but  serving  as 
breeding  grounds  from  which  they  may  spread  to  other 
fields. 

Considering  all  these  factors,  it  is  often  better  to  replant 
after  securing  three  or  four  good  crops,  rather  than  to 
try  to  keep  the  plants  longer.  The  new  plot  can  be  started 
with  less  expense  than  will  be  needed  to  maintain  the  old 
one. 

Although  the  plants  are  persistent,  it  is  not  difficult  to 
rid  a  field  of  them  when  it  is  desired  to  do  away  with  a 
plantation.  Cutting  the  plants  close  to  the  ground,  fol- 
lowed by  deep  plowing  and  thorough  surface  tillage  will 
soon  eradicate  them.  Continuing  with  any  regular  ro- 
tation will  be  all  that  is  needed. 


56  Bush-Fruits 


HARDINESS 

In  the  eastern  states,  and  probably  throughout  the 
greater  part  of  the  country,  red  raspberries  are  less  hardy 
than  black-caps.  According  to  Kirkpatrick  1  the  reverse 
is  true  in  Minnesota.  Some  varieties  are  seldom  injured  in 
favorable  locations  in  middle  latitudes  of  the  United  States. 
The  most  common  condition  is  that  the  tips  are  killed 
back  somewhat  but  ordinarily  not  farther  than  it  would 
be  desirable  to  cut  them  at  pruning  time  anyway. 

It, seems  probable  that  lack  of  hardiness  as  frequently 
comes  from  want  of  ability  in  the  leaves  to  endure  the 
hot  suns  of  summer  as  from  lack  of  ability  in  the  canes  to 
endure  the  cold  of  winter.  If  by  any  means  the  function 
of  the  foliage  during  the  growing  season  becomes  impaired, 
the  vitality  of  the  plant  is  lessened,  and  it  goes  into  winter 
poorly  prepared  to  meet  the  conditions  laid  upon  it  during 
that  period.  Hence  it  seems  but  reasonable  that  lack  of 
hardiness,  or  winter-killing,  may  result  from  insect  or 
fungous  injury  inflicted  during  summer,  as  well  as  from 
unfavorable  climatic  conditions.  It  is  an  interesting  fact 
that  small,  late-growing  canes  generally  stand  the  winter 
better  than  the  more  vigorous  ones  of  the  whole  season's 
growth.  Cuthbert  canes  produced  at  the  Cornell  gardens, 
after  cutting  away  all  young  canes  early  in  July,  came 
through  the  winter  in  better  condition  than  the  earlier, 
undisturbed  canes  in  the  other  part  of  the  same  row 
These  later  canes  were  alive  to  the  tip  in  spring.  At  the 
time  the  leaves  were  opening  they  were  more  uniformly 
green  and  farther  advanced  than  the  others.  They  pro- 
1  Minn.  Farmers'  Library  Extension,  Bulletin  No.  16. 


Yields  57 

duced  fine  fruit,  but  since  they  are  smaller  than  canes  of 
the  full  season's  growth,  the  yield  might  be  less.  One 
Iowa  grower  reports  that  in  two  seasons'  trial,  blackberry 
canes  produced  after  pulling  up  all  young  shoots  about 
the  last  of  June,  were  loaded  with  fine  berries,  while  older 
canes  alongside  had  but  few.  Although  such  canes  are 
later  it  does  not  necessarily  follow  that  they  are  immature. 
Starting  later,  when  the  conditions  do  not  favor  so  vigor- 
ous a  growth,  the  wood  may  be  firmer  and  its  vitality 
greater  at  the  beginning  of  winter  than  that  of  the  earlier 
canes. 

YIELDS 

The  average  yield  of  red  raspberries  is  less  than  that  of 
black-caps,  though  under  exceptional  conditions  and  in 
some  localities  the  reverse  may  be  true.  Estimates  from 
a  number  of  growers,  obtained  by  the  writer  a  number  of 
years  ago,  gave  an  average  of  about  2,200  quarts  to  the 
acre.  Average  yields  in  western  New  York,  as  obtained 
by  Wilson,  were  1,784  quarts  in  1909  and  1,351  quarts 
in  1910.  The  yields  in  1909  were  based  on  returns  from 
52  acres;  those  in  1910  on  those  from  155  acres.  The 
average  price  received  a  quart  was  a  trifle  over  nine  cents 
in  1909  and  something  over  ten  cents  in  1910. 1  Herrick 
and  Bennett 2  place  the  average  yield  for  Colorado  at 
about  4,500  quarts  an  acre,  under  irrigation,  considerably 
higher  than  that  for  black-caps.  The  yields  are  not  only 
smaller,  as  a  rule,  but  the  ripening  period  is  much  longer. 
This  makes  the  picking  and  marketing  more  expensive, 

1  Cornell  Reading-Courses,  Vol.  II,  No.  36. 

2  Colorado  Expt.  Station,  Bulletin  No.  171. 


58  Bush-Fruits 

since  there  are  never  very  many  berries  ripe  at  one  time. 
The  grower  must,  therefore,  receive  a  considerably  higher 
price  per  quart  than  for  black-caps,  or  blackberries,  if 
they  are  to  prove  equally  profitable.  As  with  all  crops 
the  yields  are  largely  dependent  upon  the  care  and  at- 
tention received. 


NORMAL   PROFITS 

Forecasting  profits  in  any  undertaking  is  uncertain. 
So  many  factors  enter  into  the  problem  that  one  can 
never  safely  predict  the  outcome.  Red  raspberries  are 
nearly  always  in  good  demand.  The  grower  who  has  a 
home  market  at  hand  is  reasonably  safe  in  expecting  a 
price  which  will  yield  a  fair  profit  on  a  well-grown  crop. 
Large  markets  are  much  less  likely  to  be  glutted  with 
reds  than  with  blacks,  but  their  smaller  yields  and  poorer 
shipping  qualities  make  them  less  desirable  for  distant 
markets.  The  cost  of  production,  including  rent  of  land, 
fertilizer,  tillage,  and  the  like  should  not  exceed  fifty 
dollars  an  acre.  The  cost  of  picking  and  packages  will 
range  from  two  to  four  cents  a  quart.  At  a  selling  price 
of  ten  cents  a  quart  to  the  grower,  there  should  be  a  fair 
margin  of  profit  in  the  undertaking.  Wilson  found  in  his 
investigations,  cited  above,  that  the  average  gross  returns 
to  the  acre  were  $162.91  in  1909  and  $139.75  in  1910. 


NOTE   ON   THE   HYBRID   REDS 

Two  classes  of  plants  are  really  embraced  in  this  hybrid 
group.    One  of  these  propagates  naturally  almost  wholly 


Note  on  the  Hybrid  Reds  59 

by  tips,  like  the  black-caps.  This  is  the  true  Rubus  neg- 
lectus,  or  Purple  Cane  type.  It  is  to  this  class  that  the 
old  Purple  Cane,  Shaffer,  Columbian  and  others  belong. 
These  demand  the  same  methods  of  planting,  pruning  and 
care  as  those  given  to  the  black-caps.  The  other  class 
propagates  chiefly  by  suckers,  but  can  be  made  to  root 
from  the  tips  with  proper  care.  These  are  essentially  red 
raspberries  in  character,  and  demand  the  same  care  and 
treatment  as  red  raspberries.  Some  of  them  approach 
so  closely  to  the  true  red  raspberries  that  they  might  even 
be  more  properly  classed  as  such  than  with  Rubus  neg- 
lectus.  To  this  class  belong  Philadelphia,  Reliance  and  a 
few  others.  Caroline  is  a  pinkish  yellow  berry,  belonging 
to  this  category  and  thought  to  be  a  seedling  of  Brinckle's 
Orange,  fertilized  by  some  cap  variety. 

Many  of  these  are  excellent  for  the  home-garden,  owing 
to  their  great  productiveness  and  rich  flavor.  The  chief 
objection  to  them  as  a  market  fruit  is  their  dull,  unattrac- 
tive color  and  their  poor  carrying  quality.  Some  persons 
who  cultivate  them  for  market  overcome  this  difficulty, 
in  part,  by  picking  them  before  they  are  fully  ripe  and 
while  they  are  yet  red.  At  this  time  they  carry  better 
and  look  better  in  market.  In  a  home  market,  there  is 
little  difficulty  in  selling  the  Shaffer  or  Columbian,  when 
fully  ripe,  dark  as  they  are,  when  persons  come  to  know 
them.  They  are  among  the  best  raspberries  grown,  for 
canning  purposes,  combining  something  of  the  flavor  of 
both  the  reds  and  the  blacks.  Their  color,  when  cooked, 
is  no  longer  objectionable. 


CHAPTER  III 
BLACK  RASPBERRIES 

THE  black-cap  raspberry  is  strictly  an  American  fruit. 
Its  culture  is  comparatively  recent,  and  all  the  varieties 
grown  belong  to  the  same  species,  Rubus  occidentalis,  the 
common  wild  berry  of  the  fields  and  woodlands.  While 
not  such  a  general  favorite  as  the  red  raspberry,  its  hardi- 
ness, productiveness,  ease  of  culture  and  its  adaptability 
to  the  evaporating  industry  have  given  it  a  prominent 
place  among  our  commercial  bush-fruits. 

SOIL   FOR   BLACK-CAPS 

Black-caps  succeed  on  a  wide  range  of  soils,  but  thrive 
best  on  one  which  is  rich,  deep,  moist  and  well  drained. 
Sandy  or  clay  loams  are  preferable.  A  location  where 
water  stands  for  any  length  of  time  is  never  permissible. 
Let  the  grower  who  has  ever  gathered  wild  black  rasp- 
berries recall  how  luxuriantly  they  grow  in  newly-cleared 
land,  abounding  in  leaf-mold,  and  take  a  lesson  there- 
from. Virgin  soil  filled  with  leaf-mold  is  no  longer  avail- 
able, but  it  is  possible  to  greatly  add  to  the  humus  in  the 
soil  which  is  to  be  used,  thereby  approximating  the  condi- 
tions found  in  the  forest  clearing.  It  should  be  remem- 
bered that  humus  greatly  increases  the  drought-resisting 
quality  of  soils,  a  point  of  the  utmost  importance  in  berry- 

60 


Location 


61 


growing.  A  soil  rich  in  humus  will  do  much  toward  sup- 
plying the  elements  of  plant-food  needed,  by  rendering 
available  that  which  is  already  in  the  soil  and  preventing 
its  loss.  In  Kansas,  the  uplands  having  a  black  loam 
with  clay  subsoil,  are  reported  to  give  the  best  results. 
Stony  soils  may  yield  good  crops,  but  are  even  more  ex- 
pensive to  work  than  with  crops  for  which  the  ground  is 
plowed  every  year. 

Wilson  found  1  that  in  western  New  York,  loam  soils 
gave  better  results  than  clay,  as  indicated  by  the  follow- 
ing table: 


SOILS 

Acreage 

Yield    to    the 
acre  (quarts] 

Income  to  the 
acre 

•Sandy  loam  

77.85 
51.08 
10.25 

1,434.50 
1,405.40 
1,266.05 

$106.59 
107.05 
100.83 

Gravelly  loam  

Clay  soils 

LOCATION 

More  vigorous  growth  and  larger  fruit  can  be  obtained 
from  the  strong,  moist  soils  of  bottom-lands  and  valleys. 
Such  fruit  may  not  quite  equal  in  flavor  that  grown  on 
uplands  but  is  more  salable.  There  is  always  greater 
danger  from  frosts  and  from  winter  injury  in  very  severe 
weather  on  low  ground,  except  in  the  vicinity  of  large 
bodies  of  water.  A  cool,  northern  exposure,  less  affected 
by  hot  summer  suns  and  less  subject  to  drought,  is  to  be 
preferred,  though  by  no  means  necessary.  A  closely 
bordered  basin  is  objectionable.  Extremes  of  temperature 
1  Cornell  Reading-Courses,  Vol.  II,  No.  36. 


62  Bush-Fruits 

are  greater  in  such  a  location.  In  the  bright  days  of  sum- 
mer with  the  sun  pouring  its  intense  rays  into  such  a 
basin,  the  atmosphere  becomes  abnormally  hot.  At  night 
the  cold  air  settles  into  the  same  basin,  with  no  opportunity 
to  drain  away,  greatly  increasing  the  danger  from  frosts  in 
spring,  and  subjecting  the  plants  to  lower  winter  temper- 
atures than  those  which  prevail  on  the  higher  lands  about. 
Steep  hillsides  are  objectionable.  Tillage  is  much  more 
difficult  on  such  lands  and  the  loss  of  fertility  and  danger 
to  the  plants  from  washing  during  heavy  rains  are  factors 
of  importance. 

Location  with  reference  to  market  is  not  of  so  much  im- 
portance with  black-caps  as  with  red  varieties.  The  fruit 
is  firmer  and  carries  better,  hence  can  be  more  readily 
shipped  or  carried  longer  distances  without  injury.  When 
grown  for  evaporating  purposes  this  factor  is  practically 
eliminated.  The  man  far  inland,  with  no  railway  or  other 
public  transportation  facilities  at  hand,  can  compete  on 
equal  terms  with  the  one  who  has  a  large  market  right  at 
hand,  except  that  the  latter  may  supply  the  fresh  market 
so  far  as  conditions  warrant,  and  evaporate  only  the  sur- 
plus. 

FERTILIZERS 

Stable-manure  is  the  most  popular  fertilizer  among 
growers.  It  is  especially  suitable  for  black-caps,  for  they 
seem  to  demand  heavier  feeding  than  red  raspberries  or 
blackberries.  Strong-growing  plants  are  usually  the  most 
productive  and  bear  the  finest  fruit.  Even  an  over-supply 
of  nitrogen  is  not  so  likely  to  produce  a  tender  plant  which 
suffers  from  winter-killing.  In  replies  to  questions  sent 'to 


Fertilizers  63 

growers  some  years  ago,  asking  what  fertilizer  had  been 
found  most  satisfactory,  stable-manure  was  mentioned 
oftener  than  any  other  material;  wood-ashes  was  also  much 
in  favor.  The  use  of  chemicals  was  less  common  then 
than  now  and  stable-manure  would  be  the  material  most 
likely  to  be  used.  It  may  not  be  the  most  economical,  nor 
even  the  best  material  to  use  under  all  conditions,  but  it 
does  give  good  results  when  properly  applied. 

One  wide-awake  grower  replied  that  a  Planet  Jr.  cul- 
tivator proved  the  best  fertilizer  with  him.  This  is  simply 
a  modified  version  of  the  old  adage  that  "tillage  is  man- 
ure," the  full  truth  of  which  most  of  us  have  not  yet  come 
to  appreciate.  Such  plants  as  raspberries  do  not  make 
heavy  drafts  upon  the  soil.  If  therefore  the  physical 
conditions  of  the  soil  can  be  kept  right  and  the  chemical 
activities  can  be  augmented,  enough  plant-food  can  be 
unlocked  from  most  soils  to  supply  their  needs.  Tillage 
does  both  of  these  and  also  assists  to  conserve  moisture, 
without  which  no  plant-food  can  be  available,  since  it  can 
only  be  used  by  the  plant  when  in  solution. 

The  quality  of  ordinary  stable-manure  is  very  uncer- 
tain, owing  to  differences  in  methods  of  feeding,  and  in  the 
treatment  which  the  manure  receives  after  it  is  made. 
It  commonly  contains  an  excess  of  nitrogen.  This,  though 
by  far  the  most  expensive  element  of  plant  fertility,  and 
one  easily  lost  by  leaching  and  evaporation,  is  required 
in  only  limited  quantities  in  the  production  of  fruit.  The 
chances  are,  therefore,  that  in  the  use  of  large  quantities 
of  stable-manure  this  expensive  element  is  wasted.  An 
excess  of  organic  nitrogen  may  also  help  to  deplete  the 
soil  of  potash.  When  changed  to  nitric  acid  it  combines 


64  Bush-Fruits 

with  potash  and  other  bases  which  leach  away  if  not  taken 
up  by  plants,  thus  depleting  the  soil  of  basic  ingredients. 
The  use  of  less  manure,  supplemented  with  chemical? 
containing  phosphoric  acid  and  potash,  is  often  wiser. 

According  to  the  analysis  of  raspberries  published  from 
Washington  1  a  crop  of  one  hundred  bushels  of  raspberries 
would  remove  only  about  six  pounds  of  nitrogen,  twenty 
pounds  of  phosphoric  acid  and  fourteen  pounds  of  potash 
from  the  soil.  This  being  true,  the  importance  of  fertili- 
zers may  be  easily  overestimated.  Fifty  pounds  of  nitrate 
of  soda  or  slightly  more  of  dried  blood,  one  hundred  and 
fifty  pounds  of  acid  phosphate  and  fifty  pounds  of  muriate 
of  potash  would  more  than  supply  this  need.  The  un- 
avoidable losses  in  the  soil  make  it  necessary  to  furnish 
more  than  the  plants  take  away;  yet  this  may  serve  as  a 
suggestion  regarding  the  possible  demands.  The  individ- 
ual qualities  of  the  soil  may  modify  the  validity  of  cal- 
culations of  this  sort,  since  soils  differ  so  much. 

One  factor  in  soil-fertility  is  not  supplied  by  chemicals. 
That  factor  is  humus,  a  more  important  one  than  the 
others.  In  this  stable-manure  has  the  advantage,  but  the 
same  results  may  be  obtained  by  the  judicious  use  of 
green-crops  before  planting  and  of  cover-crops  afterward. 

PROPAGATION 

In  practice,  there  is  but  one  way  of  propagating  black- 
caps.    That  is  from  the  tips  formed  where  the  ends  of 
the  canes  take  root.     Plants  can  be  grown  from  root- 
cuttings,  or  by  burying  the  entire  cane  and  cutting  it 
1  Year  Book,  Dept.  of  Agr.,  1895,  568. 


Propagation  65 

in  pieces  after  roots  have  been  thrown  out,  but  these 
methods  are  seldom  used.  In  sod  ground,  the  tips  take 
root  readily,  unaided,  for  they  work  their  way  in  among 
the  grass  roots  and  are  thus  held  in  place  until  roots  are 
formed.  In  cultivated  ground  they  are  usually  blown 
about  by  the  wind  so  much  that  they  cannot  get  started. 
For  this  reason  it  is  necessary  to  put  the  tips  down  and 
cover  them  with  soil  in  order  to  secure  many  plants.  This 
may  be  done  with  a  hoe,  a  spade,  or  any  other  convenient 
implement.  Better  plants  will  be  produced  if  the  tip  is 
pointed  well  downward,  so  that  the  end  is  the  deepest 
part  when  covered. 

A  tool  hung  somewhat  like  an  adze,  but  with  a  narrower 
blade  is  found  useful  .by  some  persons.  Such  a  device 
was  first  suggested  by  L.  J.  Farmer  of  Pulaski,  New  York, 
and  is  used  largely  in  planting  strawberries.  It  is  made 
about  as  heavy  as  a  good-sized  hammer,  so  that  it  can  be 
readily  swung  in  one  hand. 

An  implement  on  the  plan  of  a  spade,  but  with  a  narrow 
blade  like  a  pruning  or  weed-spud  would  work  well  except 
on  very  stony  ground.  The  blade  should  be  strong  but 
need  not  be  more  than  six  or  eight  inches  long.  A  cross- 
bar on  which  to  put  the  foot,  for  thrusting  it  into  the  soil, 
should  be  provided.  With  such  an  implement,  the  tips 
can  be  quickly  fastened.  It  should  be  moved  back  and 
forth  slightly  after  entering  the  soil,  the  tip  inserted,  then 
the  tool  thrust  in  again  at  the  side  and  pressed  toward 
the  former  opening  to  firm  the  soil  about  the  tip  and  hold 
it  in  place.  Either  of  these  implements  can  be  made  by  a 
blacksmith. 

Plants  should  be  propagated  from  young  plantations  if 


66  Bush-Fruits 

feasible  to  do  so.  The  tips  from  young  bushes  root  more 
readily  and  produce  more  healthy  and  vigorous  plants. 
A  plant  which  has  borne  several  crops  of  fruit,  under  or- 
dinary methods  of  care,  becomes  weakened  in  vitality, 
and  this  lack  of  vigor  naturally  extends  to  the  young 
plant  produced  therefrorn.  Propagation  from  old  planta- 
tions is  especially  objectionable  if  the  plants  are  affected 
with  anthracnose,  or  other  fungous  disease,  as  many  old 
plantations  are.  The  tips  should  not  be  covered  until 
they  begin  to  thicken  and  assume  a  leafless  " snake-like" 
appearance.  This  condition  usually  begins  about  the 
middle  of  August,  in  middle  latitudes. 

PLANTING 

Spring  planting  is  to  be  preferred  for  black-caps,  and  if 
possible,  it  should  be  done  early.  The  new  shoot  which 
springs  up  from  the  tip  is  very  tender  at  first,  and  easily 
broken.  It  is,  therefore,  much  better  to  remove  and  set 
the  plant  before  growth  begins.  Failing  in  that  it  is  well 
to  allow  these  shoots  to  become  strong  enough  to  bear 
handling  without  being  broken.  If  for  any  reason  it 
seems  best  to  get  plants  in  the  fall,  a  good  method  is  to 
plant  them  close  together  in  shallow  furrows  and  mulch 
them  well  for  the  winter.  They  are  left  in  this  position 
until  the  young  shoots  have  made  a  growth  of  several 
inches  in  spring.  They  are  then  set  in  their  permanent 
place.  By  this  means  any  poor  plants  may  be  weeded 
out  and  a  perfect  stand  secured  in  the  field. 

The  plants  should  be  set  deep  under  ordinary  soil  condi- 
tions. Three  to  four  inches  is  none  too  deep  for  best 


Planting  67 

results.  This  does  not  mean  that  they  should  be  put  in 
the  bottom  of  a  hard  furrow  at  that  depth.  The  land 
should  be  well  pulverized  as  deeply  as  it  can  conveniently 
be  done,  so  that  the  bottom  of  the  furrow  will  be  mellow 
and  friable  like  the  rest.  The  plants  are  set  in  the  bottom 
of  the  furrow  but  covered  only  enough  to  insure  a  proper 
start  at  first.  The  earth  should  be  well  firmed  about  the 
roots  but  preferably  with  a  little  loose  mellow  soil  on  top. 
The  furrow  is  then  gradually  filled  in  later  with  the  or- 
dinary tillage  given,  as  growth  progresses.  At  the  outset, 
plants  so  set  may  not  make  so  vigorous  and  even  a  start 
as  if  set  nearer  the  surface,  but  they  are  likely  to  with- 
stand drought  better  and  the  canes  are  not  so  easily  blown 
over.  On  many  soils,  especially  those  not  well  drained, 
there  is  trouble  from  heaving  during  the  winter.  As  time 
goes  on  the  crown  of  the  plant  may  be  lifted  entirely 
above  the  ground  level,  leaving  only  roots  beneath.  Deep 
planting  helps  to  obviate  this  trouble  to  some  extent.  On 
land  where  the  subsoil  is  high  and  hard  deep  planting  will 
not  prove  satisfactory.  It  means  that  the  roots  find  the 
soil  conditions  too  unfavorable  in  such  situations. 

The  young  plants  should  be  closely  cut  back  when  set. 
Inexperienced  growers  may  sometimes  neglect  this.  Even 
long  canes  are  sometimes  left,  in  the  hope  of  getting  fruit 
at  once.  This  is  a  mistake,  for  any  fruit  obtained  the 
first  year  is  at  the  expense  of  the  growth  and  vitality 
of  the  plant.  It  will  be  deducted  from  succeeding  crops 
several  times  over.  Plants  which  are  not  well  cut  back 
do  not  throw  up  young  shoots  from  the  root  so  readily, 
being  more  inclined  to  branch  out  from  the  old  cane. 
Four  to  six  inches  of  the  old  cane  is  enough  to  leave  with 


68  Bush-Fruits 

the  tip,  just  enough  to  furnish  leaf  surface  to  keep  the 
plant  growing  until  the  young  shoot  gets  under  way. 

If  the  old  canes  are  affected  with  anthracnose  it  is 
better  to  cut  them  away  entirely  before  taking  the  plants 
to  the  field.  This  leaves  the  young  tip  dependent  upon 
its  own  shoot  for  leaf  surface  but  this  is  better  than  allow- 
ing it  to  battle  with  disease  from  the  start.  It  is  wiser 
to  keep  the  plantation  free  from  disease,  in  so  far  as 
possible,  than  to  introduce  it  and  then  attempt  to  fight  it 
afterward.  If  the  pieces  of  cane  left  with  the  tips  carry 
anthracnose  spots  when  planted,  the  disease  is  transferred 
to  the  new  plantation  with  as  much  certainty  as  the  plants 
themselves.  Diseased  canes  should  be  destroyed,  or  at 
least  not  allowed  to  lie  about  the  field  where  the  planting 
is  going  on.  These  fungi  are  as  truly  plants  as  the  ones 
on  which  they  live,  and  their  seeds  (spores)  are  as  sure  to 
germinate  and  grow  if  given  proper  conditions. 

If  black-cap  raspberries  are  to  be  planted  in  rows,  three 
feet  in  the  row,  with  rows  six  feet  apart,  will  be  found 
satisfactory  distances.  Some  prefer  rows  seven  feet  apart; 
for  very  strong-growing  varieties  this  may  be  better.  If 
in  hills,  they  should  be  not  less  than  five  feet  apart  each 
way,  which  may  do  for  weak  and  slender-growing  varieties, 
but  as  a  rule  six  feet  is  much  better.  Black-caps  are  more 
easily  kept  in  good  condition  in  rows  than  red  raspberries 
and  blackberries,  but  the  intermediate  space  between  the 
plants  must  be  kept  clean  by  hand.  It  is  therefore  more 
expensive  to  care  for  an  acre  thus  planted  than  when  in 
hills  far  enough  apart  to  admit  of  horse  cultivation  both 
ways.  Larger  and  finer  fruit  can  also  be  obtained  from 
hills  farther  apart,  with  thorough  cultivation  on  all  sides. 


Tillage  69 

The  main  question  is  the  yield.  Those  who  have  tried  it 
most  thoroughly  are  most  confident  that  the  yield  is 
fully  as  good  in  hills  as  in  rows. 


TILLAGE 

A  few  special  points  regarding  tillage  are  worthy  of 
attention.  The  first  of  importance  is  that  it  should  begin 
early  in  spring.  Most  soils  are  fairly  loose  and  mellow 
when  the  frost  first  leaves,  but  many  become  very  hard 
after  a  few  spring  rains  have  beaten  them  down  and  the 
sun  has  dried  them  out.  With  favorable  weather,  so  that 
cultivation  can  be  started  promptly  after  the  frost  leaves, 
the  surface  of  nearly  all  soils  can  be  readily  put  in  good 
condition  with  any  ordinary  cultivator.  If  left  until  it 
becomes  dry  and  hard,  almost  any  cultivator  will  fail  to 
do  this,  except  on  light  and  porous  soils.  A  plow  is  some- 
times used  for  the  first  working,  but  this  is  not  desirable. 
Even  with  a  light  plow,  and  turning  as  shallow  a  furrow 
as  possible,  the  surface  is  left  in  an  unfavorable  condition. 
If  the  furrows  are  turned  from  the  rows  the  roots  may 
be  disturbed  and  many  of  them  are  left  too  near  the  sur- 
face. If  turned  toward  the  rows  a  ridge  is  formed  under- 
neath the  plants,  which  soon  becomes  objectionable  if 
the  process  is  repeated,  unless  some  means  are  used  to 
work  it  down  again. 

When  cover-crops  are  used,  it  is  especially  important  to 
start  the  work  early  in  spring,  if  it  is  to  be  done  with  the 
cultivator  alone,  unless  the  crop  is  one  which  is  killed  down 
by  the  winter.  Tillage  should  be  frequent  throughout 
the  early  part  of  the  season,  in  order  to  maintain  a  good 


70  Bush-Fruits 

dust  mulch  and  conserve  moisture  for  fruit  development. 
Fine  fruit  is  a  compound  of  carefully  filtered  water,  with 
delicate  fruit  flavors.  The  more  water  the  product  con- 
tains the  finer  the  product  and  the  better  it  pleases  the 
customer.  Careful  attention  to  the  moisture  supply  is 
therefore  one  of  the  prime  essentials  in  successful  fruit- 
culture. 

Opinions  differ  as  to  how  late  tillage  should  continue, 
but  if  tips  are  to  be  put  down  for  propagation  tillage  will 
need  to  stop  when  that  is  done.  On  average  soils  there  is 
little  danger  of  forcing  too  much  late  growth  by  con- 
tinuous tillage. 

PRUNING 

The  first  pruning  in  the  life  of  a  black-cap  plant  is  to 
cut  off  all  but  a  few  inches  of  the  old  cane  from  the  tip 
when  it  is  set,  as  explained  under  the  head  of  propagation. 
The  next  step,  in  ordinary  commercial  practice,  is  to  pinch 
back  the  young  shoot  when  it  reaches  a  height  of  not 
more  than  eighteen  to  twenty-four  inches.  The  younger 
or  weaker  the  plant,  the  lower  should  be  the  point  at  which 
it  is  stopped.  The  object  of  this  pinching,  or  clipping,  is 
to  stop  the  growth  of  the  main  shoot  and  cause  the  forma- 
tion of  strong,  lateral  branches  near  enough  to  the  ground 
to  form  a  sturdy,  self-supporting  bush.  This  shoot  will 
increase  in  height  considerably  after  it  is  clipped,  if  done 
at  the  proper  time.  It  is  therefore  important  that  it  be 
nipped  low.  It  is  also  important  that  it  be  done  when 
the  shoot  reaches  the  desired  height.  If  neglected  until 
it  has  grown  taller  and  then  cut  back  to  the  desired 
height,  the  buds  which  are  left  will  be  slower  in  starting 


Pruning  71 

into  growth  than  those  near  the  tip.  If  tipped  at  too  high 
a  point  the  result  will  be  a  tall,  top-heavy  plant  easily 
blown  over  or  broken  down. 

If  done  at  the  right  time  these  shoots  can  be  pinched 
off  with  the  thumb  and  finger  as  easily  as  in  any  other 
way.  In  practice  it  is  not  easy  to  reach  them  all  at 
the  right  time  so  that  some  implement  may  be  useful. 
Sheep-shears  are  very  convenient  for  this  purpose.  In 
young  plantations,  where  there  are  no  old  canes  in  the 
way,  a  sharp  knife  or  sickle  will  do  the  work  more 
quickly. 

Tipping,  as  above  described,  is  the  only  pruning  de- 
manded the  first  season  after  the  plant  is  set.  The  next 
step  is  to  shorten  back  the  lateral  branches  the  following 
spring.  These  are  ordinarily  left  from  twelve  to  eighteen 
inches  long,  but  this  operation  should  not  be  done  by  rule. 
As  previously  suggested,  this  is  the  thinning  process  in 
handling  bush-fruits,  and  should  be  done  with  judgment. 
The  length  of  the  lateral  should  be  influenced  by  the  age 
and  vigor  of  the  plant,  the  fertility  of  the  soil  and  its 
moisture-holding,  capacity,  the  care  and  fertilizer  given, 
etc.  There  is  sometimes  a  temptation  to  leave  too  much 
wood,  especially  the  first  year  of  fruiting.  It  is  possible, 
by  leaving  the  canes  long,  to  secure  a  fairly  large  crop  the 
first  year,  but  when  this  is  done  the  plant's  energy  is 
so  absorbed  in  fruit  production  that  little  is  left  for  wood 
growth.  The  succeeding  crops  are  therefore  much  less 
satisfactory  than  they  otherwise  would  be. 

The  above  method  is  the  one  commonly  in  use  in  grow- 
ing black-caps,  but  an  occasional  grower  prefers  to  omit 
the  summer  pinching  of  the  growing  shoots,  allowing  them 


72  Bush-Fruits 

to  form  one  long,  tall,  unbranched  cane.  This  is  merely 
shortened  back  in  spring  as  conditions  seem  to  warrant. 
When  this  method  is  followed  the  canes  are  often  tied  to 
stakes  or  trellises.  The  plan  reduces  the  work  of  pruning, 
but  that  is  more  than  offset  by  the  trouble  of  staking  or 
trellising  if  that  is  done.  One  point  worth  considering 
in  connection  with  this  method  is  the  fact  that  diseases 
are  less  likely  to  be  troublesome,  especially  anthracnose. 
In  small,  confined  areas,  especially  on  low,  moist  ground, 
this  may  be  a  matter  of  considerable  importance.  Per- 
haps it  is  largely  for  this  reason  that  plantations  are 
thought  by  some  to  last  longer  if  handled  in  this  way. 
The  jdelds  do  not  appear  to  average  as  well  as  by  the 
former  method. 

The  last  step  in  pruning  is  to  cut  away  the  fruiting 
canes  after  they  have  borne.  The  best  time  to  do  this  is 
as  soon  as  fruiting  is  over.  At  that  time  they  are  still 
alive  and  green  and  cut  much  easier  than  if  left  until 
winter  or  the  following  spring.  Removing  them  also 
gives  better  opportunity  for  free  circulation  of  air  through 
the  plantation.  This  tends  to  check  the  spread  of  fungous 
diseases.  Some  insects  which  work  in  the  cane  also  spend 
the  winter  there,  and  may  be  destroyed  by  promptly  re- 
moving and  burning  them.  Removing  the  canes  as  soon 
as  fruiting  is  over  gives  a  good  opportunity  for  thoroughly 
tilling  and  cleaning  up  the  plantation  before  beginning  to 
put  down  the  tips  for  the  growth  of  new  plants.  If  too 
many  young  canes  spring  up  in  the  hill,  part  of  them 
should  be  removed  when  the  old  canes  are  cut  away,  un- 
less it  has  been  done  before.  Not  over  five  should  be  left; 
three  may  be  even  better. 


Harvesting  73 

When  a  plantation  is  to  be  discontinued,  it  is  sometimes 
advisable  to  go  through  and  pull  out  all  young  shoots  the 
last  summer  so  that  the  energy  of  the  plant  may  be  di- 
rected to  fruit-bearing.  This  is  said  to  hasten  ripening 
slightly  and  carry  the  fruit  through  in  somewhat  better 
condition,  especially  in  dry  seasons. 


HARVESTING 

Gathering  the  fruit  is  the  most  troublesome  part  of 
berry-growing.  The  availability  of  pickers  is  the  first 
point  to  be  considered  in  starting  the  business.  Details 
as  to  methods  of  picking  need  not  be  repeated  here  as  the 
same  methods  apply  as  with  red  raspberries  and  other 
small  fruits. 

When  grown  for  evaporating  purposes  it  can  be  done 
by  "batting"  the  fruit  into  a  berry  harvester.  This 
method  makes  it  possible  for  any  farmer  to  take  up  this 
industry,  no  matter  how  remote  he  may  be  from  towns 
or  railways.  In  fact  it  makes  the  growing  of  raspberries 
for  evaporating  one  of  the  best  lines  of  fruit-growing  for 
such  locations,  since  it  is  a  line  in  which  the  cost  of  delivery 
is  almost  entirely  eliminated.  The  man  with  a  ton  of 
dried  raspberries  to  market  can  afford  to  take  them  ten 
or  fifteen  miles  to  ship  if  need  be.  He  will  still  have  a 
very  small  percentage  charge  against  the  value  of  the  prod- 
uce. With  a  ton  of  potatoes  or  hay  the  percentage  is 
far  different.  It  is  in  locations  where  pickers  cannot  be 
readily  obtained  that  the  chief  value  of  this  method  of 
harvesting  lies.  The  final  cost  of  preparing  the  fruit  for 
market  is  not  materially  different  whether  picked  by  hand 


74  Bush-Fruits 

or  gathered  with  the  harvester  but  it  is  differently  distrib- 
uted. Under  some  conditions  one  method  will  prove 
best  and  under  other  conditions  the  other  will  be  most 
satisfactory. 

The  harvester  shown  in  Fig.  11  is  a  simple  affair,  con- 
sisting of  a  canvas  tray  some  three  feet  square,  there  being 

only  enough  wood  about  it 
to  form  a  frame-work  and 
enable  it  to  be  moved  about. 
Under  the  corner  which  rests 
on  the  ground,  there  is  a  sort 
of  shoe  of  wood,  enabling  it 
to  be  slid  along  from  bush  to 

Fig.  11.  Berry  harvester.  .       .         T  .         ,      . 

bush.  In  one  hand  the  op- 
erator carries  a  large  wire  hook,  with  which  the  bushes 
are  drawn  over  the  canvas,  or  lifted  up  if  too  low  down 
and  in  the  way.  In  the  other  hand  is  a  bat,  resem- 
bling a  lawn-tennis  racket,  with  which  he  knocks  off  the 
ripe  berries.  This  bat  is  merely  a  canvas-covered  loop 
of  heavy  wire  fastened  in  a  convenient  handle.  In 
place  of  this,  some  use  a  wooden  paddle,  at  the  risk  of 
bruising  the  fruit  unnecessarily.  In  gathering  by  this 
method,  the  berries  are  allowed  to  become  very  ripe,  and 
the  plantation  is  gone  over  but  two  or  three  times  in  a 
season.  Many  dry  leaves,  some  stems,  and  a  few  green 
-berries,  are  knocked  off  with  the  fruit.  The  leaves  are  not 
objectionable,  for  they  help  to  absorb  moisture  before 
and  after  drying,  and  may  aid  in  preventing  mold  if  the 
fruit  has  to  stand  for  some  time  before  going  to  the  evap- 
orator. The  leaves  are  quickly  taken  out  by  running 
the  fruit  through  a  fanning  mill  after  it  is  dried.  Some 


Harvesting  75 

growers  fan  them  out  before  drying,  but  this  has  the  dis- 
advantage of  bruising  and  crushing  more  berries.  The 
berries  are  usually  allowed  to  stand  in  the  field  in  boxes 
for  a  time  after  gathering,  and  any  insects  which  may 
have  fallen  in  are  likely  to  crawl  out  and  disappear. 

Growers  who  have  had  much  experience  say  that  a  man 
will  average  eight  to  ten  bushels  a  day  with  the  harvester, 
although  much  more  can  be  gathered  in  the  best  picking. 
On  one  farm  visited,  two  men  and  two  girls  had  gathered 
thirty-one  bushels  the  day  previous  in  ordinary  picking, 
and  one  of  the  men  had  been  in  the  field  but  part  of  the 
time.  This  shows- the  first  cost  of  gathering  to  be  less  than 
half  a  cent  per  quart.  Running  them  through  the  fanning 
mill  costs  but  a  trifle.  Before  marketing  they  are  picked 
over  by  hand  to  remove  stems,  green  berries  and  other 
litter.  This  costs  about  one  cent  a  pound,  and  is  some- 
times paid  for  by  the  pound  at  that  rate.  The  whole 
cost  may  not  exceed  one  cent  a  quart,  as  against  two 
cents  usually  paid  for  hand-picking.  There  are  those, 
however,  who  think  that  in  the  end  there  is  not  much 
difference  in  the  expense,  whether  gathered  with  the 
harvester  or  picked  by  hand.  Growers  who  have  had 
experience  with  both  methods  express  the  opinion  that 
harvesting  yields  a  better  quality  of  dried  fruit  than  hand- 
picking,  for  the  reason  that,  if  picked  by  hand,  they  can- 
not afford  to  look  them  over  again  after  drying,  and  so 
they  do  not  go  to  market  in  as  clean  and  nice  condition  as 
those  which  come  from  the  harvester. 

Some  extensive  and  general  fruit-growers  find  it  in- 
convenient to  look  over  the  dried  product  at  the  same  time 
that  other  fruits,  which  follow  on  after  the  raspberries, 


76  Bush-Fruits 

are  claiming  their  attention.  For  that  reason  they  prefer 
to  pick  a  large  part  of  the  crop  by  hand  and  market  it 
fresh,  if  pickers  are  to  be  had.  In  that  case,  they  find 
the  harvester  a  great  convenience  to  finish  up  the  last 
of  the  crop.  Every  grower  knows  how  much  dissatisfac- 
tion occurs  in  keeping  the  pickers  at  their  work  after 
the  berries  begin  to  grow  scarce.  With  the  harvester,  the 
late  berries  can  all  be  gathered  at  one  time  with  much 
satisfaction  to  all  concerned.  This  plan  is  also  available 
for  those  who  sell  their  fruit  fresh.  The  last  of  the  crop 
can  be  gathered  and  dried,  thus  affording  relief  to  the 
market  and  to  the  patience  of  the  grower  and  pickers. 

This  method  of  harvesting  was  invented  and  intro- 
duced by  Jewett  Benedict,  of  Dundee,  New  York,  and  is 
extensively  used  by  the  berry-growers  of  that  region.  Most 
of  the  harvesters  in  use  are  simple  home-made  affairs, 
and  various  modifications  have  been  adopted  to  suit  the 
tastes  of  individual  growers.  Several  of  these  are  de- 
scribed in  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  213  from  the  Department 
of  Agriculture  at  Washington.  There  is  some  loss  of  fruit 
in  harvesting  but  the  amount  is  not  large. 

METHODS   OF   DRYING 

Drying  out  of  Doors 

Various  methods  of  drying  are  employed,  the  simplest 
of  which  is  to  dry  on  boards  in  the  sun  as  illustrated  in 
Plate  III.  This  usually  takes  from  three  to  five  days.  Plat- 
forms or  trays  about  twelve  feet  long  and  three  to  four  feet 
wide  are  made  of  matched  boards.  A  narrow  strip  is  nailed 
around  the  edge  of  each  tray  to  prevent  the  berries  from 


Methods  of  Drying  77 

rolling  off.  The  trays  rest  upon  long  horses  made  of  scant- 
ling, to  hold  them  at  a  convenient  height  from  the  ground. 
A  little  block  is  tacked  across  each  corner  of  the  trays,  so 
that  at  night  or  in  case  of  a  shower  they  can  be  stacked  up 
on  top  of  each  other  and  covered  with  boards  or  canvas. 
This  is  of  necessity  a  slow  way  of  drying,  and  the  cost  of 
lumber  for  trays  to  handle  a  large  crop  would  be  an  im- 
portant item.  One  of  the  chief  objections  to  the  method  is 
the  large  number  of  flies  which  it  calls  to  the  scene,  the  at- 
tentions of  which  do  not  render  the  fruit  more  appetizing. 
Indeed,  those  who  are  familiar  with  the  method  are  often 
prejudiced  against  all  dried  raspberries.  Sun-dried  rasp- 
berries are  usually  quoted  about  one  cent  a  pound  below 
evaporated  berries,  but  consumers  can  never  be  sure  which 
they  are  getting.  These  trays  might  be  covered  with  fly 
netting,  but  this  would  increase  the  time  needed  for  dry- 
ing, and  would  not  wholly  obviate  the  difficulty,  unless 
the  netting  were  held  above  the  fruit.  If  laid  directly  upon 
it  little  would  be  gained.  A  single  attempt  to  dry  black- 
berries under  glass  when  covered  with  netting  proved 
such  a  failure,  inducing  so  much  more  molding  than  with- 
out the  netting,  that  the  plan  would  probably  prove  un- 
satisfactory. 

Drying  under  Glass 

Another  method  employed  by  those  who  have  green- 
houses for  the  winter  forcing  of  vegetables,  is  to  utilize  the 
space  under  glass  during  the  berry  season  for  this  purpose. 
In  this  situation  the  berries  usually  dry  in  about  three 
days,  in  bright,  warm  weather.  The  glass  affords  pro- 
tection from  storm  but  not  from  flies.  It  is  advisable  to 


78  Bush-Fruits 

have  as  much  air  passing  through  the  house  as  possible, 
hence  the  door  and  ventilators  are  left  open.  By  using 
screen  doors  and  protecting  the  ventilators  with  netting, 
most  of  the  flies  might  be  excluded. 

Drying  with  Evaporators 

For  a  business  of  any  considerable  extent,  drying  with 
an  evaporator  is  by  far  the  best  method.  The  results  are 
more  rapid  and  certain  and  the  product  better.  More 
pounds  of  fruit  can  be  obtained  from  a  given  quantity  of 
green  fruit,  too,  than  when  dried  in  the  sun.  The  higher 
heat  of  the  evaporator  more  quickly  dries  the  surface,  while 
retaining  the  juices  within,  so  that  the  fruit  can  go  to  the 
curing-room  while  much  greener  than  it  otherwise  could. 
Sun-dried  fruit  becomes  dry  and  hard,  much  as  it  is  some- 
times found  on  wild  raspberry  bushes  late  in  the  season. 
When  properly  cured  the  evaporated  product  remains 
more  soft  and  spongy.  It  then  soaks  out  more  quickly  and 
assumes  more  of  its  natural  condition. 

Many  types  and  makes  of  evaporators  are  in  use.  Most 
of  them  depend  upon  hot-air  furnaces  of  various  kinds 
to  do  the  work.  In  some  large  establishments  the  heat 
is  supplied  through  coils  of  steam  pipes.  This  method 
is  especially  adapted  to  situations  where  a  power  plant 
is  in  use  for  other  purposes,  so  that  the  exhaust  steam  can 
be  used  for  heating  the  evaporator.  One  advantage  of 
steam  lies  in  the  fact  that  there  is  no  danger  of  scorching 
the  fruit.  This  is  not  a  matter  of  great  importance,  for 
with  reasonable  care  there  is  little  need  of  this  in  any  good 
hot-air  machine. 


Plate  III.     Evaporating.      Drying  on  trays  in  the  sun;  an  evaporating 
establishment,  using  heat. 


Methods  of  Drying  79 

The  temperature  of  the  stack  should  run  from  160° 
to  180°  Fahrenheit.  One  important  essential  is  a  strong 
draft  of  fresh  air  through  the  machine.  A  large  amount 
of  vapor  is  given  off  by  a  machine  full  of  hot,  green  fruit, 
and  it  needs  to  be  removed  and  replaced  with  dry  air  as 
rapidly  as  possible.  Much  more  fruit  can  be  dried  in  a 
bright,  fair  day,  with  a  brisk  northwest  wind,  than  in  a 
damp,  cloudy  and  still  day.  In  some  of  the  large  hori- 
zontal machines  the  necessary  draft  of  air  is  secured  from 
large  fans  revolved  by  steam  power. 

The  commonest  type  is  some  form  of  stack  in  which 
the  trays  are  put  in  at  the  bottom,  directly  over  the  heat, 
and  gradually  lifted  to  the  top  as  others  are  put  in  be- 
neath. When  dry  they  are  taken  out  on  the  floor  above, 
the  trays  being  returned  to  the  lower  floor  for  refilling. 
One  serious  objection  to  this  method  is  the  fact  that  the 
work  must  be  timed  and  a  tray  put  in  just  often  enough 
so  that  a  dry  one  can  be  removed  from  the  top.  This  is 
not  easy,  even  with  experience,  for  as  above  noted,  weather 
conditions  greatly  modify  results.  A  type  described  by 
Corbett 1  reverses  this  operation,  putting  in  the  green 
fruit  at  the  top  and  removing  the  dried  product  at  the 
bottom.  The  advantage  claimed  for  the  method  is  that 
the  vapor  from  the  green  fruit  will  be  more  quickly  re- 
moved without  passing  over  that  which  is  more  nearly 
dry,  and  that  quicker  results,  less  dependent  on  atmos- 
pheric conditions,  are  to  be  obtained.  A  modern  type 
evaporator  is  shown  in  Plate  III. 

In  the  Williams  evaporator,  one  of  the  earlier  makes, 
the  trays  were  placed  on  hangers  attached  to  endless 
1  Farmers'  Bulletin,  No.  213,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr. 


80  Bush-Fruits 

chains  revolving  over  two  shafts.  When  first  put  in,  the 
tray  was  dropped  down  directly  over  the  heat,  moving 
from  there  up  one  flue  of  the  stack,  over  the  top  and  down 
to  the  place  of  entrance.  Each  hanger  had  space  for  seven 
trays,  but  only  one  was  put  in  at  a  time,  so  that  each 
tray  passed  up  and  down  the  stack  several  times  before 
it  was  removed.  This  gave  full  opportunity  for  the 
"stackman"  to  examine  the  fruit  and  note  the  progress 
of  drying.  Any  tray  could  be  removed,  independently  of 
others,  whenever  it  came  opposite  the  entrance  door,  or 
could  be  brought  there  at  any  time.  While  very  con- 
venient, this  type  of  machine  did  not  so  fully  utilize  the 
space  within  the  stack,  and  seems  to  have  dropped  out 
of  use. 

The  fruit  is  taken  from  the  evaporator  when  only  par- 
tially dry,  a  small  percentage  of  it  being  still  soft.  It  is 
then  placed  on  a  curing  floor,  where  it  is  shoveled  over 
daily  for  some  three  weeks.  Instead  of  the  curing  floor 
some  now  use  small  curing  boxes,  the  fruit  being  turned 
from  one  box  to  another  each  day.  This  plan  may  econ- 
omize room  and  perhaps  secures  greater  uniformity  of 
moisture  content  when  ready  for  packing.  By  this  process 
of  slow  curing  a  much  softer  and  better  product  is  secured 
than  could  be  done  by  drying  them  hard  in  the  machine. 
The  weight  of  marketable  fruit  is  also  greater.  Being 
soft  and  spongy  it  can  be  more  easily  packed.  When 
used,  such  fruit  will  readily  take  up  water  and  regain 
much  of  its  former  character. 

A  good  historical  account  of  the  evaporated  raspberry 
industry,  as  given  by  Bailey,  will  be  found  in  Bulletin  100 
of  the  Cornell  University  Experiment  Station.  No  marked 


Methods  of  Drying  81 

changes  in  the  industry  have  appeared  since  that  was 
written,  except  that  its  location  has  shifted  somewhat. 
Few  are  now  evaporated  in  Wayne  County,  Dundee 
being  the  center  of  the  industry  at  present.  It  has  spread 
fairly  well  over  the  eastern  part  of  Yates  and  northeastern 
part  of  Schuyler  counties. 

A  Western  Method  of  Drying 

A  novel  method  of  drying  raspberries  is  reported  from 
Idaho.1  The  climate  is  there  so  dry  that  the  berries  are 
dried  on  the  bushes.  The  fruiting  canes  are  laid  down  in 
spring  to  keep  the  young  shoots  from  mingling  with  them. 
Two  men  with  a  pole  do  this  and  they  are  held  down  by  a 
wire.  The  canes  are  cut  with  a  horse  and  sled  cutter, 
rolled  into  bunches  and  stood  up  against  the  new  growth 
to  dry,  which  takes  from  four  to  seven  days.  A  wagon 
with  flat-bottomed  rack  and  high  sides  is  then  driven 
through.  One  man  pitches  the  bundles  on  and  two  others 
thrash  off  the  berries  with  forks  into  the  rack.  It  is  said 
that  three  men  can  thrash  and  fan  some  three  acres  per 
day.  Each  berry  carries  a  stem,  which  is  removed  by 
running  them  through  a  machine  with  rollers  designed 
for  the  purpose.  Idaho  conditions  are  considered  ideal 
for  the  purpose  and  when  the  irrigation  and  culture  have 
been  right  the  fruit  is  claimed  to  be  much  sweeter  and 
richer  than  that  which  is  hand-picked  and  evaporated  in 
the  East.  Two  men  are  able  to  care  for  forty  acres,  with 
one  or  two  extra  for  a  month  or  so  during  harvest.  The 
writer  claims  that  the  method  practically  eliminates  the 
1  Rural  New  Yorker,  1909:  963  &  1041. 


82  Bush-Fruits 

cost  of  harvesting,  since  by  this  way  it  is  little  more  than 
that  of  removing  the  old  canes  in  ordinary  culture.  He 
claims  a  yield  of  1,000  pounds  an  acre  at  a  cost  of  produc- 
tion of  $20  an  acre.  The  method  is  interesting  as  showing 
the  possibilities  of  adaptation  to  differing  conditions. 

MARKETING 

When  sold  fresh,  black  raspberries  are  usually  marketed 
in  the  ordinary  quart  baskets.  They  hold  up  fairly  well 
in  these,  and  being  one  of  the  cheaper  berries,  this  package 
meets  the  demands  of  most  markets  well.  The  berries 
would  be  more  attractive  and  handle  better  in  pints,  if 
the  market  would  warrant  it.  This  might  be  found  ad- 
visable for  the  first  of  the  season  in  cases  where  a  satisfac- 
tory price  can  still  be  maintained. 

The  dried  fruit  is  marketed  either  in  barrels  or  boxes. 
The  boxes  used  are  the  same  as  those  in  which  evaporated 
apples  are  packed,  being  about  12  by  12  by  24  inches  in 
size,  and  holding  50  pounds  of  fruit.  In  packing  dried 
fruit  an  extra  heavy  box,  without  bottom,  is  placed  on 
top  of  the  one  to  be  filled  and  some  form  of  press  used  to 
force  the  required  weight  into  the  packing-box.  The 
product  is  usually  marketed  through  commission  men  or 
large  wholesale  houses. 

DURATION   OF   PLANTATIONS 

The  life  of  a  plantation  will  depend  somewhat  on  how 
it  is  handled.  Plants  may  live  and  bear  fruit  for  many 
years.  They  may  last  longer  when  allowed  to  go  un- 


Clearing  the  Ground  83 

pruned  and  uncared  for  than  when  given  good  care.  The 
point  to  determine  is  not  how  long  they  will  live,  but  how 
long  will  they  pay.  With  ordinary  good  culture  it  is  sel- 
dom wise  to  harvest  more  than  four  crops.  Of  these,  the 
first  crop  is  only  a  partial  one.  As  a  plantation  grows 
older,  more  labor  is  needed  to  keep  it  in  condition.  The 
yields  grow  less  and  the  fruit  smaller.  More  profit  is 
therefore  likely  to  result  from  tearing  it  out  and  replant- 
ing, after  a  few  good  crops,  rather  than  in  trying  to  keep 
it  bearing  longer. 

CLEAKING   THE   GROUND 

To  rid  a  piece  of  ground  of  black  raspberry  plants,  when 
no  longer  wanted,  is  comparatively  simple.  Mow,  rake 
together,  and  burn  the  bushes,  after  fruiting.  Then  plow 
deep  and  thoroughly,  turning  out  all  the  berry  stumps,  and 
the  work  is  practically  done.  Some  of  the  plants  will 
throw  up  shoots  again  when  not  thoroughly  uprooted, 
but  they  can  be  subdued  with  little  trouble.  This  first 
plowing  is  heavy  and  slow  work,  and  many  of  the  stumps 
will  drag  out  and  interfere  in  a  measure  with  the  subse- 
quent harrowing,  but  aside  from  that,  there  is  little  diffi- 
culty. If  the  land  is  to  be  used  for  small  or  fine  crops, 
these  stumps  will  need  to  be  removed,  but  for  potatoes 
or  corn  they  will  cause  little  trouble.  Raspberries  seem 
to  leave  the  land  in  fine  condition  for  other  crops.  One 
may  expect  a  good  piece  of  corn  to  follow  a  raspberry 
plantation  when  turned  under. 


84  Bush-Fruits 

HARDINESS 

Black  raspberries  are  among  the  hardiest  members  of 
the  bramble  family.  Even  the  more  tender  varieties  will 
withstand  the  winters  of  most  localities  in  middle  latitudes 
without  injury.  In  severe  climates,  and  especially  in  the 
Plains  region,  winter  protection  becomes  necessary.  Even 
when  not  entirely  killed,  plants  are  often  so  weakened  in 
vitality  that  the  yield  is  unsatisfactory.  Under  such  con- 
ditions, laying  them  down  for  winter  is  to  be  advised. 
Much  depends  on  the  condition  of  the  plant  during 
its  season  of  growth.  Plants  probably  "winter-kill"  in 
August  as  well  as  in  January.  Good  tillage,  and  protec- 
tion from  insect  and  fungous  injury  during  summer  may 
be  as  important  as  protection  from  cold  in  winter. 

YIELDS 

Some  years  ago  a  number  of  New  York  state  growers 
were  asked  to  give  their  estimate  of  a  fair  average  yield 
of  black-caps  to  the  acre.  The  replies  varied  widely  and 
came  from  commercial  growers  and  from  those  who  only 
grew  a  small  number  in  the  home-garden.  Averaging 
these  estimates  as  best  it  could  be  done,  gave  about  2500 
quarts  as  the  amount  to  be  expected  from  an  acre.  The 
figures  were  worthy  of  confidence,  because  they  came  from 
practical  men  who  were  in  the  business,  but  were  only 
estimates,  not  actual  records.  More  recently  Wilson  has 
found  the  actual  yields  in  commercial  plantations  to  be 
considerably  less  than  this.1  He  gives  records  from  134 
1  The  Cornell  Reading-Courses,  Vol.  II,  No.  36. 


Yields  85 

acres,  including  several  varieties,  the  average  yield  being 
a  little  less  than  1500  quarts  to  the  acre.  The  average 
money  return  from  these  fields  was  about  $112  for  each 
acre. 

The  yield  in  pounds  of  dried  product  to  a  bushel  of 
green  fruit  varies  greatly  with  different  seasons  and  parts 
of  the  same  season.  Early  in  a  wet  season,  when  the  fruit 
has  made  a  quick,  vigorous  and  watery  growth,  it  may 
take  four  quarts  to  make  a  pound  of  dried  fruit.  At  the 
end  of  a  very  dry  season,  it  may  take  only  two  quarts. 
Growers  expect  to  average  about  ten  pounds  of  dried 
fruit  to  the  bushel.  Varieties  differ  considerably  in  this 
respect.  The  Ohio  is  one  of  the  heaviest  yielders,  in  pro- 
portion to  the  amount  of  green  fruit,  owing  largely  to  the 
greater  number  of  seeds.  It  is  one  of  the  poorest  in  quality, 
and  possesses  less  food  value  per  bushel  than  other  varie- 
ties. The  Gregg  follows  it  closely  in  yield  and  is  a  better 
berry.  In  some  experiments  with  seedlings,  Goff  found 
that  small  and  juicy  berries  yielded  a  higher  percentage  of 
evaporated  fruit  than  larger  and  dryer  ones,  showing  that 
it  does  not  follow  that  a  berry  which  is  dry  in  texture 
will  give  a  good  yield  when  evaporated.  In  point  of 
quality  and  food  value,  the  Shaffer  ranks  among  the  best. 
From  the  consumer's  standpoint  varieties  of  this  type 
are  among  the  most  desirable.  They  are  so  near  like  the  red 
raspberries  that  when  evaporated  the  quality  is  fully 
equal,  if  not  superior,  to  that  of  the  true  reds,  while  the 
yield  of  dried  fruit  per  bushel  is  not  very  far  below  that  of 
the  black-caps.  It  is  certainly  an  excellent  berry  to  dry 
for  the  home  market,  where  the  price  can  be  made  to  con- 
form to  the  cost  of  production. 


86  Bush-Fruits 

The  man  who  is  growing  berries  to  evaporate  is  not 
likely  to  suffer  so  seriously  from  drought  as  the  one  who 
sells  his  fruit  fresh.  Dry  weather  reduces  the  number  of 
quarts  per  acre  more  than  the  number  of  pounds  of  dried 
fruit.  A  long  drought,  extending  through  the  early  part 
of  the  season,  does  injure  the  yield,  but  dry  weather  at 
ripening  time  only,  need  cause  no  serious  loss  if  the  cul- 
tivation has  been  frequent  and  thorough.  The  man  who 
will  till  and  care  for  his  plants  as  he  should  is  nearly 
independent  of  drought. 

USUAL   PROFITS 

Based  on  Wilson's  figures  for  average  yields  of  fresh 
fruits  to  the  acre,  as  previously  quoted,  and  estimating 
the  yield  of  dried  fruit  at  ten  pounds  a  bushel,  the  average 
amount  of  dried  fruit  to  be  expected  from  an  acre  will  be 
about  500  pounds.  Wholesale  prices  for  the  finished 
product  vary,  but  in  recent  years  have  usually  ranged 
from  twenty  to  twenty-five  cents  a  pound.  Formerly 
the  cost  of  harvesting  and  marketing  ran  about  as  fol- 
lows:— Harvesting  with  the  berry  harvester  J^  cent  a 
quart;  evaporating,  2^4  cents  a  pound;  cleaning  for  market 
and  marketing  each  1  cent  a  pound.  Changed  conditions 
may  alter  these  figures  somewhat  at  the  present  time,  but 
they  will  serve  as  a  basis  on  which  the  inexperienced  man 
can  form  some  estimate  of  the  probable  outcome  of  the 
undertaking  under  favorable  conditions.  On  this  basis 
the  gross  return  to  the  acre  should  be  $100  to  $125,  from 
fields  in  full  bearing.  The  cost  of  harvesting  and  market- 
ing would  be  $30  or  more,  leaving  the  remainder  to  pay 


Usual  Profits  87 

for  the  cost  of  growing,  including  rent  of  land,  fertilizer, 
planting,  care,  oversight  and  other  overhead  charges, 
and  profits.  To  the  man  with  a  taste  for  this  kind  of  work 
whose  soil,  site  and  climate  are  favorable,  the  growing 
of  black  raspberries  for  evaporating  purposes  can  be  rec- 
ommended with  confidence.  Especially  is  this  true  for 
the  man  who  does  not  have  a  good  local  market  and  is  so 
situated  that  he  cannot  easily  secure  pickers  for  other 
lines  of  small-fruit  growing. 

A  price  of  twenty  cents  a  pound  for  the  dried  product 
will  be  equivalent  to  about  six  cents  a  quart  fresh.  Ac- 
curate figures  concerning  cost  of  production  are  hard  to 
secure,  and  each  grower  can  make  his  own  estimates  best. 
A  crop  of  potatoes  can  be  grown  between  the  rows  the  year 
of  setting,  which  will  usually  repay  that  year's  cultivation, 
exclusive  of  the  cost  of  plants,  while  the  second  year's  crop 
of  fruit  will  do  the  same,  and  perhaps  more.  Plants  can 
be  bought  at  $6  to  $8  a  thousand.  If  set  three  by  six  feet, 
it  requires  2,420  plants  to  the  acre.  If  set  farther  apart 
than  this,  the  number  required  is  proportionately  less. 

The  fear  of  over-production  discourages  some  persons 
from  undertaking  work  of  this  kind.  The  raspberry  in- 
dustry does  not  differ  from  other  lines  of  farm  enterprise 
in  this  regard.  So  long  as  human  nature  remains  the 
same,  fluctuations  in  product  and  prices  may  be  expected 
to  continue,  whether  the  product  be  potatoes,  cows,  wheat 
or  raspberries.  While  evaporated  raspberries  do  not 
rank  as  a  high  grade  product  and  are  not  in  as  great  de- 
mand as  many  other  articles  of  food,  the  total  consump- 
tion is  still  large.  The  individual  grower  need  have  little 
fear  of  not  finding  a  market  for  his  output. 


CHAPTER  IV 
BLACKBERRIES 

THE  blackberry,  as  a  cultivated  plant,  is  an  American 
fruit.  The  child  of  our  eastern  hills,  woodlands  and 
mountains,  its  introduction  to  the  garden  and  field  has 
been  recent.  Methods  and  varieties  are,  therefore,  alike 
new.  In  many  localities  the  abundance  of  the  wild  fruit 
still  interferes  with  the  profitable  culture  of  the  garden 
varieties.  Much  improvement  is  yet  to  be  expected  in 
varieties  and  perhaps  in  methods. 

According  to  the  census  of  1910,  there  were  growing  in 
the  United  States  in  1909  about  49,000  acres  of  blackberries 
and  dewberries.  Missouri  leads  in  production,  with 
nearly  6,000  acres,  followed  by  New  Jersey,  with  4,332 
and  Michigan  with  3,500,  while  Wyoming  and  Nevada 
each  report  one  acre  or  less. 

SOIL 

Considerable  diversity  of  opinion  exists  among  growers 
regarding  the  soil  best  suited  to  the  blackberry,  a  diversity 
which  is  no  doubt  due,  in  part  at  least,  to  the  fact  that  a 
blackberry  is  hard  to  kill.  It  is  likely  to  make  a  partial 
success  wherever  it  may  chance  to  be,  for  it  possesses  a 
genuine  courage  which  knows  no  failure,  and  bravely  sets 
out  to  make  the  best  of  existing  conditions. 

Many  hold  that  only  a  comparatively  light  and  poor 

88 


Fertilizers  89 

soil  is  suitable,  in  order  that  the  plants  may  not  make  too 
great  a  growth  of  wood  at  the  expense  of  fruit-production. 
On  the  other  hand,  growers  in  the  prairie  states,  where  the 
land  is  naturally  rich,  do  not  recommend  their  poorer  soils. 
A  strong,  well-drained  clay  loam  meets  with  the  most 
general  approval,  though  light,  warm  land,  having  a 
porous  clay  subsoil,  may  give  excellent  results.  On  these 
stronger  soils,  plants  have  frequently  passed  the  winter 
unharmed  when  in  parts  of  the  same  field  on  more  sterile 
soil  they  were  badly  winter-killed. 

A  soil  that  is  retentive  of  moisture  is  imperative,  this 
being  the  prime  essential  in  blackberry  growing.  For 
this  reason  a  cool,  northern  exposure  is  generally  pref- 
erable, because  such  a  location  will  help  to  offset  injury 
from  drought,  the  arch  enemy  of  the  blackberry.  Deep 
working  of  the  soil  before  planting,  and  natural  or  arti- 
ficial drainage,  are  essential  both  to  conserve  the  neces- 
sary moisture  and  to  prevent  over-supply.  None  of  our 
cultivated  brambles  can  make  satisfactory  terms  with  a 
wet,  heavy  soil,  and  any  attempt  to  compel  them  to  do 
so  will  surely  result  in  failure.  Land  with  a  high  and 
hard  subsoil,  therefore,  should  be  tile-drained  before 
planting. 

FERTILIZERS 

Do  blackberries  need  fertilizers?  Some  say  no;  others 
yes.  There  must  be  a  reason  for  this  difference  of  opinion. 
On  strong,  moist  soil  blackberries  may  produce  such  a 
rampant  growth  that  they  nearly  forget  to  bear  fruit. 
These  overgrown,  poorly  matured  canes  are  then  likely 
to  suffer  from  the  cold  of  the  succeeding  winter,  and  to 


90  Bush-Fruits 

be  left  in  a  condition  to  repeat  the  same  behavior  the 
following  season.  It  is  a  significant  fact,  however,  that 
western  growers,  who  may  be  fairly  presumed  to  have  a 
stronger  soil,  are  strongest  in  their  recommendations  of 
liberal  fertilizing.  The  following  statement  from  0.  B. 
Galusha,  as  reported  in  the  Transactions  of  the  Illinois 
Horticultural  Society  for  1880,  is  worthy  of  careful  con- 
sideration: "A  generous  feeding  of  the  soil  is  amply  repaid 
in  liberal  crops  of  fruit.  In  my  older  plantation,  the  soil 
was  equally  manured  throughout,  and  yet  on  one  side  it 
is  naturally  considerably  richer  than  the  other,  and  this 
side  produces  fully  one-third  more  fruit  than  the  other." 
This  same  principle  will  apply  equally  well  to  ordinary 
soils  throughout  the  country,  as  a  whole.  If  properly 
managed  and  pruned,  the  plants  will  be  able  to  transform 
a  large  amount  of  plant-food  into  luscious  berries  and 
laughing  dollars.  Heavy  applications  of  stable-manure 
to  young  plants,  which  have  not  yet  sufficient  wood  to 
carry  full  crops,  may  work  injury,  especially  if  on  strong, 
moist  soils.  On  soils  of  this  character,  nothing  is  needed 
until  the  plants  are  in  full  bearing.  If  additional  plant- 
food  is  then  desirable,  commercial  fertilizers,  may  better 
fill  the  need. 

In  the  use  of  chemicals,  a  quick-acting  carrier  of  nitro- 
gen, like  nitrate  of  soda,  is  to  be  preferred.  This,  if  ap- 
plied early  in  the  season,  at  the  time  when  growth  is  be- 
ginning, will  do  its  work  with  time  for  proper  ripening  of 
the  cane  to  insure  best  conditions  for  withstanding  winter 
injury.  For  the  same  reason,  stable-manure,  when  used, 
should  be  applied  in  fall  or  winter,  rather  than  spring  or 
early  summer. 


Propagation  of  the  Blackberry  91 

Since  potash  has  been  shown  to  increase  the  sugar  con- 
tent of  fruits,  its  use  for  the  blackberry  is  especially  de- 
sirable. The  greatest  fault  with  the  cultivated  blackberry 
as  a  dessert  fruit  is  its  acidity.  Whatever  treatment  will 
tend  to  reduce  that  acidity  is  worthy  of  trial. 

The  blackberry  is  not  particularly  sensitive  to  soil 
acidity.  Lime  is  therefore  seldom  essential  to  best  results. 


PROPAGATION  OF  THE  BLACKBERRY 

The  propagation  of  blackberries,  by  means  of  suckers, 
as  commonly  done,  is  a  simple  operation.  The  plants  at- 
tend to  the  matter  themselves,  the  cultivator  need  only 
care  for  the  product.  Keeping  down  suckers,  in  fact,  is 
one  of  the  most  troublesome  operations  in  blackberry 
growing.  When  produced  in  large  numbers,  their  effect 
is  to  detract  from  the  vigor  and  productiveness  of  the 
parent  plant.  A  plantation  will  soon  become  choked  with 
young  plants  if  left  undisturbed.  Unless  these  plants  are 
wanted  for  sale  or  for  planting,  vigorous  measures  are 
needed  to  hold  them  in  check.  If  a  market  for  them  is  at 
hand,  they  may  prove  more  profitable  than  the  fruit. 

If  many  plants  of  a  new  and  high-priced  variety  are 
desired,  the  number  of  suckers  may  be  increased  by  cul- 
tivation which  tends  to  disturb  the  roots.  Thrusting  a 
spade  into  the  ground  in  circles  several  inches  apart  about 
the  parent  plant  will  sever  many  of  the  roots,  practically 
making  root-cuttings  of  them,  thereby  causing  a  large 
number  of  plants  to  spring  up.  Some  careful  observers 
assert  that  close  pruning  also  tends  to  increase  the  number 
of  suckers. 


92  Bush-Fruits 

Plants  in  large  numbers  can  be  cheaply  produced  from 
an  old  plantation  which  is  to  be  discarded,  by  cutting  away 
the  bushes,  plowing  and  cultivating  the  ground  in  spring, 
then  letting  everything  grow.  If  the  land  is  poor,  manuring 
will  increase  the  vigor  of  the  plants.  Roots  have  also  been 
found  to  throw  up  more  suckers  when  in  contact  with 
coarse  manure. 

Propagation  by  suckers  is  the  most  common  method, 
and  answers  equally  well  for  practical  purposes,  yet  root- 
cuttings  are  often  used,  and  give  excellent  results.  This 
is  especially  true  where  a  speedy  increase  of  choice  varie- 
ties is  desired.  The  blackberry  is  particularly  well  adapted 
to  this  method  of  propagation,  and  all  the  work  can  be 
done  out  of  doors.  The  cuttings  may  be  made  either  in 
fall  or  spring.  All  roots  three-sixteenths  of  an  inch  or 
more  in  diameter  may  be  used,  being  cut  into  pieces  two 
or  three  inches  long.  If  taken  in  the  fall,  they  should  be 
stored  in  boxes  of  moist  sand,  which  should  be  kept  in  a 
cellar  during  the  winter,  or  be  buried  outside  on  dry 
ground,  where  no  water  will  collect  about  them.  It  is 
well  to  have  holes  or  cracks  in  the  bottom  of  the  boxes, 
to  allow  the  escape  of  surplus  moisture.  The  cuttings 
should  be  stratified  in  the  boxes  in  the  same  way  that  seeds 
and  nuts  are,  with  a  layer  of  sand  or  soil,  then  a  layer  of 
cuttings,  another  of  sand,  and  so  on.  With  favorable 
winter  conditions,  callusing  will  have. begun  before  spring, 
so  that  the  pieces  will  be  in  good  condition  for  planting. 
For  this  reason  cuttings  taken  in  the  fall  and  properly 
treated  during  the  winter,  usually  give  better  success  and  a 
more  vigorous  growth  than  those  taken  in  spring.  In 
spring  the  cuttings  are  planted  out  in  loose,  mellow  soil, 


Propagation  of  the  Blackberry  93 

in  trenches  two  to  three  inches  deep,  depending  upon  the 
comparative  heaviness  or  lightness  of  the  soil,  and  about 
three  inches  apart  in  the  furrow.  They  are  covered  and  the 
soil  firmed  over  them,  the  same  as  in  planting  peas,  pota- 
toes, or  any  other  garden  vegetable.  Mulching  the  ground 
with  a  light  layer  of  straw,  sawdust,  or  similar  material, 
to  prevent  it  from  drying  out,  aids  their  growth  and  helps 
to  insure  a  good  stand. 

For  those  who  have  greenhouse  facilities,  a  very  satis- 
factory way  is  to  take  up  the  roots  and  make  the  cuttings 
as  early  in  spring  as  the  ground  will  permit,  stratifying 
them  in  boxes  of  sand  as  already  described,  and  placing 
them  under  the  greenhouse  benches.  Later,  as  other 
plants  go  outside  and  space  permits,  these  boxes  are 
placed  on  the  benches.  By  this  treatment  the  cuttings 
become  callused,  and  are  in  good  condition  to  go  into 
trenches  outside  by  the  last  of  May. 

With  an  especially  choice  variety  where  it  is  desirable 
to  increase  the  stock  with  the  greatest  possible  speed, 
the  cuttings  may  be  made  smaller,  one-half  to  one  inch 
long,  and  the  whole  operation  be  carried  on  under  glass. 
Such  cuttings  are  best  placed  just  beneath  the  surface  in 
beds  of  sand,  and  furnished  with  a  gentle  bottom  heat. 
The  plants  are  potted  off  as  soon  as  buds  have  been  de- 
veloped and  are  well  under  way,  or  when  leaf -growth  has 
begun.  Sometimes  they  are  sown  in  shallow  boxes  of 
soil  after  the  callus  and  buds  have  developed,  and  allowed 
to  remain  till  several  inches  high,  then  potted,  or  even 
set  from  here  directly  into  the  open  field,  if  the  weather 
and  soil  are  in  suitable  condition. 


94  Bush-Fruits 


PLANTING 

The  question  of  when  to  plant  should  precede  the  ques- 
tion of  how  to  plant.  As  noted  in  Chapter  I,  there  are 
advantages  both  in  spring  and  in  fall  planting.  Few 
failures  are  likely  to  result  in  either  case  if  proper  pre- 
cautions are  taken.  Plants  set  in  late  fall  should  be  pro- 
tected with  a  covering  of  soil  or  coarse  manure  during 
the  winter.  In  the  great  Plains  region  of  the  Middle 
West,  fall  planting  is  less  likely  to  succeed  than  in  the 
moister  climates  of  the  East.  Winter  drought  there  pre- 
vails as  well  as  summer  drought,  and  plants  often  perish 
for  lack  of  moisture  during  the  winter  months. 

Neither  is  fall  planting  to  be  generally  advised  under 
conditions  at  the  opposite  extreme,  where  the  rainfall  is 
excessive  and  the  winters  open,  but  with  much  alternate 
freezing  and  thawing,  as  along  the  southern  New  England 
coast.  In  such  localities  excessive  heaving  may  cause 
serious  loss.  Under  average  conditions,  fall  planting  is  to 
be  preferred  to  late  spring  planting.  If  the  work  can  be 
done  at  the  right  time,  plant  in  spring;  if  not,  plant  in 
fall. 

Thorough  soil  preparation  is  the  first  essential  m  the 
planting  of  all  fruits.  This  has  already  been  discussed,  but 
can  hardly  be  over-emphasized.  Soil  texture  is  one  of  the 
fundamental  factors  in  soil  fertility,  and  good  tillage  is  one 
of  the  primary  means  by  which  it  may  be  secured.  Thor- 
ough, deep  plowing  and  harrowing  will  not  only  make  the 
work  of  planting  easier  and  more  effective,  but  will  add 
much  to  the  later  growth  and  development  of  the  plants. 
Any  previous  treatment  which  will  increase  the  humus 


Planting  95 

content  of  the  soil  will  also  help  to  insure  the  future 
success  of  the  undertaking. 

Whether  to  plant  in  hedge-rows  or  check-rows,  must  be 
decided  before  planting  begins.  The  decision  will  be  in- 
influenced  both  by  circumstances  and  by  the  individual 
preference  of  the  grower.  Many  fields  cannot  well  be 
cultivated  in  both  directions.  This  may  settle  the  matter 
at  the  outset.  Much  difference  of  opinion  seems  to  exist 
as  to  which  is  the  better  method,  where  either  one  is 
feasible.  The  method  of  training  to  be  used  will  also  help 
to  determine  the  plan  best  adapted  to  the  individual  case. 

Those  who  advocate  the  check-row  system  claim  that 
larger  and  finer  fruit  is  produced,  with  less  hand  work. 
To  keep  a  hedge-row  free  from  weeds  and  grass  is  a  labori- 
ous and  troublesome  undertaking.  Working  both  ways 
with  the  horse  and  cultivator,  taking  care  to  keep  the 
hills  well  within  bounds,  does  away  with  much  of  that 
work,  but  increases  the  amount  of  horse-work.  It  is 
generally  believed  that  the  yield  from  hills  is  less  than 
from  hedge-rows,  but  some  advocates  of  the  hill  system 
claim  that  this  is  not  the  case.  It  would  seem  that  to 
secure  satisfactory  results  from  hills  these  hills  would 
need  to  be  left  quite  large,  and  in  that  case  there  would 
still  be  considerable  opportunity  for  weeds  to  grow.  For 
hill  cultivation  the  plants  are  ordinarily  set  six  to  eight 
feet  apart  each  way. 

Having  decided  on  the  method  to  be  employed,  mark 
out  the  land  to  correspond,  plowing  good,  deep  furrows  in 
one  direction  to  receive  the  plants.  In  setting,  time  will 
be  saved  if  three  or  four  men  can  work  together.  Let  one 
carry  the  plants  in  a  pail  of  water,  and  drop  them  at  the 


96  Bush-Fruits 

intersection  of  the  mark  and  furrow,  while  the  others  set. 
The  roots  should  be  well  spread  along  the  furrow,  the  soil 
drawn  in  over  them,  and  firmed  with  the  hands  or  feet. 
Ordinarily  this  is  most  conveniently  done  by  working  on 
hands  and  knees  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  furrow  from 
which  the  soil  is  thrown  out,  so  that  it  can  be  quickly  drawn 
in  with  the  hands.  In  fine,  mellow  soil,  free  from  stones, 
the  planter  may  walk  along  the  furrow,  take  the  plant  in 
one  hand,  and  do  the  covering  and  firming  with  the  feet, 
or  at  least  enough  of  it  to  fix  the  plant  in  position  and 
protect  it  from  drying  out,  leaving  the  balance  to  be  done 
with  hoes.  The  furrows  should  be  deep  enough  to  admit 
of  setting  the  plants  a  little  lower  than  they  previously 
grew,  and  of  doing  it  easily.  Filling  in  the  furrow,  beyond 
what  is  required  to  insure  satisfactory  conditions  of 
growth  for  the  young  plants,  can  be  left  to  follow  as  a 
matter  of  course  in  the  future  cultivation. 

For  row  planting,  rows  eight  feet  apart,  with  plants 
three  feet  apart  in  the  row,  will  be  found  satisfactory;  this 
gives  1,815  plants  to  the  acre.  Occasionally  a  grower 
prefers  planting  as  close  as  two  feet,  and  others  as  far  apart 
as  four  feet.  The  vigor  of  the  variety  and  its  suckering 
habit  may  influence  this. 

Intermingling  varieties  in  planting  to  insure  more  effec- 
tual pollination  is  not  often  practiced,  for  most  varieties 
are  self-fertile.  Varieties  which  have  their  origin  in  the 
crossing  of  blackberries  and  dewberries,  such  as  Rathbun, 
Mammoth  and  Wilson,  will  be  helped  by  pollen  from 
other  sorts.  Even  varieties  which  are  self-fertile  may  be 
benefited  by  pollen  from  another  sort.  If  more  than  one 
variety  is  to  be  grown  it  is  both  safe  and  wise  to  plant 


Tillage  and  Mulching  97 

them  near  together,  so  that  whatever  benefit  may  come 
from  interpolation  may  be  secured. 

Intercrops  may  be  grown  between  the  blackberry  rows 
while  the  plants  are  young,  and  are  to  be  advised  during 
the  first  season.  Such  hoed  crops  as  potatoes,  cabbage, 
tomatoes  and  beans  are  excellent.  Corn,  owing  to  its 
extensive  root  system  and  heavy  demands  upon  the  soil- 
moistura  is  less  suitable.  Strawberries  are  sometimes  used 
for  this  purpose  and  should  give  good  results  the  first 
year  of  fruiting.  The  constant  tillage  needed  to  keep  the 
strawberry  rows  in  place  will  help  to  push  the  young  black- 
berry plants  along  in  the  way  they  should  go.  After 
fruiting,  the  strawberry  plants  may  be  abandoned  and 
torn  out  with  the  later  cultivation. 


TILLAGE   AND   MULCHING 

Little  need  be  said  on  the  subject  of  cultivation  in  addi- 
tion to  what  has  already  been  said  in  Chapter  I.  Some 
writers  have  advised  no  cultivation  for  the  blackberry, 
at  least  after  the  second  year,  on  the  ground  that  cultiva- 
tion produces  too  rampant  growth  and  consequent  lack 
of  hardiness.  While  this  may  be  true  in  part,  the  prac- 
tice of  letting  them  go  without  cultivating  is  open  to  an 
equally  serious  if  not  more  grave  objection.  The  most 
dangerous  enemy  to  blackberry-growing  in  most  parts  of 
the  country  is  dry  weather,  especially  if  occurring  about 
the  time  of  ripening.  Tillage  is  the  most  available  means 
at  command,  in  most  cases,  for  overcoming  this  difficulty 
A  crop  may  easily  be  reduced  one-half  by  drying  up  on  the 
bushes.  While  cultivation  cannot  entirely  prevent  this 


98 


Bush-Fruits 


loss,  it  will  do  much  toward  it.  Thorough  cultivation 
every  ten  days  throughout  the  season  is  the  best  known 
substitute  for  irrigation,  and  should  be  vigorously  main- 
tained up  to  the  time  the  fruit  ripens,  at  least. 

A  cultivator  which  will  cut  the  suckers  below  the  surface 
of  the  ground  is  a  great  aid,  unless  plants  are  to  be  grown 
for  sale  or  for  further  planting.  Two  such  implements  are 
described  in  the  introductory  chapter.  A  spring-tooth 


Fig.  12.  Tilling  blackberries  with  spring-tooth  cultivator. 

cultivator,  drawn  by  either  one  or  two  horses  (Fig.  12),  is 
a  most  useful  tool  for  blackberry  plantations. 

Mulching  proves  very  satisfactory  where  the  conditions 
are  favorable.  It  is  especially  adapted  to  the  home-gar- 
den, where  patches  are  likely  to  be  small  and  inconven- 
iently cultivated.  There  is  sometimes  a  tendency  to  in- 
duce too  late  fall  growth,  and  in  this  respect  it  is  inferior 
to  cultivation,  for  a  cessation  of  tillage  practically  removes 
the  soil-mulch,  at  least  if  rains  follow  soon  to  pack  the 
surface. 


Tillage  and  Mulching  99 

A  system  of  partial  mulching  practiced  on  the  Thayer 
farms  at  Sparta,  Wisconsin,  seems  to  have  given  excellent 
results  under  their  conditions,  and  may  be  worthy  of 
more  general  use.  The  plan  followed  was  to  grow  clover 
in  a  field  by  itself,  cutting  it  when  in  bloom.  It  was  then 
drawn  to  the  berry  field  and  applied  as  a  mulch  along  the 
rows,  the  central  space  between  the  rows  being  kept  well 
cultivated.  Such  a  plan  applies  mulch  where  tillage  is 
most  troublesome  and  expensive.  If  the  mulch  is  heavy 
enough,  it  tends  to  discourage  weed  growth  and  excessive 
sucker  production  in  among  the  plants  where  most  dif- 
ficult to  control.  The  part  most  easily  tilled  on  the  other 
hand,  where  tillage  is  simplest  and  cheapest,  is  left  free 
to  be  handled  in  this  way.  A  thorough  mulch  is  more 
effective  than  surface  cultivation  in  retaining  soil  mois- 
ture. Coupled  with  this  is  the  additional  advantage  that 
the  decay  of  the  mulch  is  constantly  furnishing  humus  to 
the  soil.  The  principal  objection  to  the  practice  lies  in 
the  cost  of  the  material  and  its  application.  If  cheap 
mulching  material  can  be  conveniently  secured,  the 
method  is  worthy  of  careful  consideration. 

Where  clean  tillage  is  practiced,  the  use  of  coverrcrops 
will  aid  in  maintaining  the  humus  supply,  and  in  securing 
air  nitrogen.  The  crop  or  crops  to  be  used  for  the  purpose 
will  depend  largely  on  the  nature  of  the  climate.  Crops 
which  do  not  survive  the  winter  gather  less  nitrogen  and 
add  less  humus  but  are  more  easily  managed.  A  strong, 
thrifty  growth  of  clover  or  vetch  in  among  the  plants  is 
difficult  to  subdue  in  spring.  If  left  undisturbed  it  is 
scarcely  less  objectionable  than  weeds  in  its  immediate 
effects  on  the  berry  crop. 


100  Bush-Fruits 


PRUNING 

Opinions  differ  as  to  the  best  method  of  pruning  and 
training  the  blackberry.  As  ordinarily  practiced  in  com- 
mercial work  it  is  a  simple  operation,  if  done  at  the  proper 
time.  If  neglected  at  the  time  when  it  should  be  done  the 
results  can  never  be  satisfactory.  The  only  summer 
pruning  required  is  to  pinch  the  growing  cane  once,  at 
from  eighteen  inches  to  two  feet  from  the  ground.  There 
need  be  no  fear  of  pinching  too  low,  for  the  cane  elongates 
considerably  after  being  clipped,  if  still  young,  and  the 
result  is  a  much  better  formed  bush  than  if  allowed  to 
get  three  or  four  feet  high  before  being  cut.  I  wish  to 
reiterate  the  caution  to  pinch  back  the  canes  when  they 
get  to  the  desired  height.  It  makes  a  vast  difference  to 
the  future  growth  of  a  bush  whether  the  tip  is  clipped  off 
when  it  gets  two  feet  high  or  whether  it  is  allowed  to  grow 
to  four  feet  and  then  cut  back  to  two  feet. 

At  the  spring  pruning  the  laterals  are  cut  back  to  from 
one  to  two  feet  in  length.  This  is  an  operation  demanding 
much  judgment,  for  it  is  a  fruit-thinning  process.  Too 
close  pruning  will  diminish  the  yield,  too  little  will  allow 
more  fruit  to  set  than  can  be  properly  matured.  Not  all 
varieties  are  alike  in  fruiting-habit.  The  Taylor,  one  of 
the  best  all-round  varieties  in  cultivation,  does  not  bear 
fruit  close  to  the  main  stem.  Four  to  eight  buds  at  the 
base  of  the  branches  usually  produce  no  flowers.  Un- 
branched  canes  often  fail  to  develop  flowers  within  two 
feet  of  the  ground.  Close  pruning  of  this  variety,  there- 
fore, will  take  away  most  of  the  fruit.  Other  varieties 
under  observation  bore  flowers  within  three  or  four  buds 


Pruning        ',  ,'  \  ^  ;  v  ,      '401 


of  the  main  stem.  Erie  is  said  ta.bea#y£  Jfe  Tajioi  in' 
this  respect  and  Early  Harvest  is  said  to  bear  its  fruit- 
buds  near  the  main  stem  at  times  and  near  the  tips  at 
others.  It  is,  therefore,  better  to  defer  spring  pruning 
until  the  buds  develop,  unless  the  grower  is  sure  of  his 
ground. 

While  the  above  method  is  the  one  commonly  followed 
in  field  culture  in  the  eastern  states,  other  methods  are 
more  popular  in  some  localities.  Where  soil  and  climate 
tend  to  produce  a  very  tall  and  strong  cane,  it  is  a  common 
practice  to  allow  them  to  grow  in  their  own  way  but  to 
provide  some  kind  of  support  to  hold  them  up.  The 
particular  advantage  claimed  for  this  method  is  that  it 
permits  full  exposure  of  all  buds  and  leaves  to  sun  and 
air,  with  the  result  that  larger  and  finer  crops  of  fruit  are 
produced.  The  argument  seems  reasonable  and  perhaps 
explains  why  the  method  is  apparently  more  popular  in 
moist  localities  where  sunlight  in  less  intense.  The  chief 
disadvantage  lies  in  the  extra  labor  involved  in  providing 
support  and  securing  the  plants  to  it. 

The  most  common  support  is  some  form  of  wire  trellis. 
The  simplest  type  consists  of  a  single  wire  stretched  to 
posts  set  in  the  row.  This  wire  is  put  three  to  five  or  six 
feet  from  the  ground  depending  on  the  height  to  which  the 
canes  ordinarily  grow.  A  low  wire  is  sometimes  used, 
even  where  the  growing  canes  are  tipped  to  induce  branch- 
ing but  such  plants  usually  stand  up  well  without  support. 
Sometimes  two  wires  are  used,  one  above  the  other, 
where  canes  grow  very  tall.  For  a  good  illustration  of 
trellis-grown  blackberries,  see  frontispiece. 

A  modification  of  this  trellis,  with  either  the  single  or 


102  HJ     Bush-Fruits 

**»  f*?(.f'J  *'*"£;     S   A    '*' 

":  tfi^  .;double:  ;wiirer  v-epsists  in  nailing  cross-pieces  to  the 

posts  and  fastening  the  wires  to  these,  18  or  20  inches 
apart.  The  canes  are  then  trained  up  between  the  wires, 
being  thus  supported  without  tying. 

Trailing  varieties  are  trained  like  dewberries  except  those 
of  the  evergreen  type  (Rubus  laciniatus) .  The  canes  of 
this  class  do  not  die  each  year,  after  fruiting,  as  do  those 
of  our  common  varieties.  Old  wood  continues  to  live  and 
bear  fruit  from  year  to  year  if  allowed  to  do  so.  The 
plants  should  therefore  be  trained  in  much  the  same  man- 
ner as  grapes,  for  young  canes  produce  the  best  fruit. 
Pruning  away  surplus  wood  is  delayed  until  winter  in 
order  not  to  stimulate  the  growth  of  laterals. 

The  old  canes  of  ordinary  varieties  are  best  removed  as 
soon  as  through  fruiting,  while  they  are  more  easily  cut, 
thereby  disposing  of  whatever  fungus  spores  and  insects 
may  be  harboring  about  them. 

HARVESTING   AND   MARKETING 

Despite  the  thorny  character  of  the  bushes,  black- 
berries are  among  the  easiest  gathered  of  any  of  the  small- 
fruits.  The  fruit  when  well  grown  is  large,  and  easily 
and  rapidly  picked.  A  word  of  caution  may  be  needed 
in  regard  to  two  things.  The  first  is  never  to  leave  the 
fruit  in  the  sun  after  being  picked,  as  a  few  minutes' 
exposure  to  hot  sunshine  will  turn  it  red  and  render  it 
more  or  less  bitter  and  unpalatable.  The  next  point  is  not 
to  pick  it  until  ripe.  The  cultivated  blackberry  has  been 
greatly  misjudged  in  the  matter  of  quality  because  the 
fruit  of  many  varieties  turns  black  before  it  is  ripe.  The 


Uses  103 

result  is,  that  oftener  than  otherwise  the  berries  are  picked 
green,  and  consumers,  supposing  them  to  be  ripe  because 
they  are  black,  growl  because  they  are  sour  or  sometimes 
bitter.  For  distant  markets  this  cannot  be  wholly  avoided, 
as  the  fruit  must  be  picked  while  still  firm,  even  at  the 
expense  of  quality.  For  home  use,  if  left  till  the  bees 
begin  to  eat  them,  there  will  be  no  cause  for  complaint 
at  the  quality  of  the  cultivated  blackberry.  In  commercial 
work  much  attention  must  be  given  to  this  point.  If 
picked  while  still  firm,  the  fruit  handles  and  carries  well. 
If  left  until  fully  ripe  and  beginning  to  soften,  the  ideal 
condition  for  immediate  use  in  its  fresh  state,  it  will 
quickly  spoil  on  the  market.  A  blackberry  when  first 
turned  is  a  very  firm  fruit,  when  fully  ripe  a  very  soft  one. 
The  fruit  is  marketed  either  in  pint  or  in  quart  baskets, 
as  best  suits  the  fancy  of  the  selected  market.  The  black- 
berry is  a  fruit  which  usually  meets  with  a  ready  sale  at 
good  prices,  and  one  which  handles  well.  Many  small 
inland  towns  and  villages  consume  very  considerable 
quantities  of  the  fruit  at  prices  which  are  eminently  satis- 
factory to  the  grower.  In  localities  where  wild  fruit  is 
abundant  the  demand  may  be  limited. 


USES 

The  blackberry  is  primarily  a  table  fruit  for  immediate 
consumption,  either  in  its  fresh  state  or  in  the  making  of 
pies,  puddings  and  the  like.  Heating  changes  its  flavor 
and  color  materially.  This  is  a  change  rather  than  an 
injury,  however,  for  by  many  the  cooked  product  is  pre- 
ferred to  the  uncooked.  The  fruit  therefore  lends  itself 


104  Bush-Fruits 

readily  to  home  canning  and  is  largely  used  in  this  way. 
It  also  affords  excellent  jams  and  jellies. 

In  the  commercial  canning  industry,  the  blackberry 
now  holds  a  much  more  important  place  than  formerly. 
According  to  Darrow  l  the  introduction  of  the  lacquered- 
tin  can  has  had  much  to  do  with  the  increased  use  of  this 
fruit  among  canners.  Ordinary  tin  is  said  to  discolor  the 
fruit  when  it  comes  in  contact  with  it.  Canners  are  able 
to  use  large  quantities  of  wild  and  other  low-grade  fruit, 
which  might  otherwise  go  to  waste. 

Dried  blackberries  are  nearly  always  quoted  in  market, 
yet,  so  far  as  known,  are  not  grown  for  that  purpose,  the 
supply  coming  almost  wholly  from  the  South,  where  the 
wild  berries  are  gathered  and  are  dried  in  the  sun.  They 
are  usually  poor  in  quality,  and  quoted  at  a  price  which 
would  render  it  unprofitable  to  dry  them  if  there  were  a 
market  for  fresh  fruit.  In  order  to  learn  something  of 
their  adaptability  for  this  purpose,  eight  well-filled  quart 
baskets  just  as  we  were  selling  them  fresh,  were  taken 
for  experiment.  They  were  made  to  correspond  in  weight, 
so  that  each  quart,  with  the  basket,  weighed  one  and  one- 
half  pounds.  Deducting  the  weight  of  the  baskets  left 
five  pounds  ten  and  one-half  ounces  of  fruit  in  each  of 
two  lots  of  four  quarts.  Granulated  sugar  was  freely 
sprinkled  over  one  lot.  Four  ounces  of  sugar  was  thus 
used,  one  ounce  to  each  quart,  making  the  weight  of  this 
lot  plus  the  sugar,  five  pounds  fourteen  and  one-half 
ounces.  Both  lots  were  put  in  the  greenhouse  to  dry 
August  3,  on  wire  screens,  and  covered  with  mosquito 
netting  to  keep  away  the  flies.  After  one  or  two  days  of 
1  Farmers'  Bulletin,  No.  643. 


Uses  105 

sunshine,  there  came  several  cloudy  ones,  and  the  berries 
began  to  mold,  so  that  the  netting  had  to  be  removed. 
Those  treated  with  sugar  molded  less  than  the  others, 
and  stuck  to  the  screens  less  in  drying.  August  12  both 
lots  were  taken  up  and  weighed.  They  appeared  to  be 
as  dry  as  raspberries  usually  are  when  put  into  the  curing 
room,  but  quickly  began  to  mold  again  when  put  in  a  pile 
together.  The  four  quarts  dried  without  sugar  weighed 
at  this  date  one  pound  ten  and  one-half  ounces.  The  four 
quarts  dried  with  sugar  weighed  one  pound  fifteen  and 
one-half  ounces.  From  these  weights,  it  appears  that  not 
over  twelve  to  fourteen  pounds  of  dried  fruit  to  the  bushel 
can  be  expected.  The  weight  of  sugar  applied  seems  to  be 
retained,  and  possibly  increases  the  weight  slightly  in 
addition,  by  retaining  more  of  the  juices  of  the  fruit. 
Those  treated  with  sugar  seemed  to  remain  in  a  softer  and 
better  condition  for  cooking.  Judging  from  this  attempt, 
the  blackberry  dries  very  slowly,  and  under  present  condi- 
tions, at  least,  there  seems  to  be  little  promise  that  it 
can  be  profitably  grown  for  evaporating  purposes.  The 
quality  of  dried  blackberries  is  low.  They  seem  to  be 
lacking  in  sugar  and  pronounced  qualities. 

The  value  of  the  blackberry  in  household  uses  is  not 
fully  appreciated.  Ancient  writers  were  inclined  to  lay 
great  stress  on  the  medicinal  qualities  of  all  plants  and 
fruits,  and  while  we  are  wont  to  smile  at  many  of  the  sup- 
posed virtues  there  recorded,  we  might  well  profit  by 
studying  more  closely  the  uses  and  virtues  of  the  black- 
berry. The  value  of  blackberry  'wine  or  brandy  in  bowel 
troubles  is  well  known.  It  is  reported  that  blackberries 
preserved  in  one  of  these  forms  were  found  by  army  sur- 


106  Bush-Fruits 

geons  to  be  the  only  sure  and  sovereign  remedy  against 
chronic  diarrhoea,  proving  effectual  whenever  taken  in 
time,  even  after  all  other  medicines  had  failed.  If  the 
previously  prepared  wine  or  brandy  is  not  available,  the 
water  from  blackberry  roots  freshly  dug  and  steeped,  will 
usually  serve  the  purpose  equally  well.  This,  though  an 
old-time  household  remedy,  has  lost  none  of  its  effective- 
ness with  the  passage  of  time. 

Various  recipes  are  given  for  the  manufacture  of  wine, 
one  of  which  is  quoted  from  an  early  edition  of  "The 
Gardener's  Monthly."  "Express  the  juice  through  a 
thick  cloth,  to  prevent  any  pulp  mixing  with  it.  To  one 
quart  of  juice  add  two  quarts  of  soft  water  (cold)  and  three 
pounds  of  sugar.  Let  it  then  stand  in  a  wide-mouthed 
vessel,  until  fermentation  ceases,  which  will  be  sometimes 
after  two  months.  Be  careful  while  fermentation  is  going 
on  to  keep  the  film  skimmed  clear  from  the  top  of  the 
liquid  daily,  and  to  keep  the  vessel  full  to  the  top.  A  small 
vessel  of  the  liquid  should  be  kept  for  filling  up  the  large 
vessels  as  the  skimmings  are  removed.  When  fermenta- 
tion ceases,  strain  the  wine  into  bottles.  The  wine  keeps 
better  in  large  quantities,  and  to  that  end  put  it  into  large 
stone  jugs,  corking  and  sealing  them." 

Another  recipe  adds  a  quart  of  boiling  water  to  every 
gallon  of  the  crushed  fruit,  before  expressing  the  juice, 
instead  of  adding  cold  water  afterwards.  It  also  adds  the 
white  of  eggs  beaten  to  a  froth  and  stirred  into  the  juice; 
spices  are  also  enclosed  in  a  cloth  bag,  and  dropped  into  it. 

Formerly  there  was  a  market  for  good  blackberry  wine 
for  medicinal  uses,  at  $2  to  S3  a  gallon,  and  if  a  glut  of 
fresh  fruit  occurred,  it  could  be  turned  into  wine  to  good 


Lessening  the  Effects  of  Drought  107 

advantage.  In  recent  years  this  seems  to  have  been 
largely  replaced  in  practice  by  other  medicines  and  stimu- 
lants, and  there  is  little  demand  for  it. 

Probably  the  greatest  value  of  the  blackberry  is  not 
so  much  as  a  medicine  to  cure  disease,  as  in  its  healthful- 
ness  when  used  as  a  food.  Perhaps  nothing  is  more  con- 
ducive to  health  and  good  spirits  than  fresh,  well-ripened 
fruit,  and  among  all  fruits  there  is  none  better  adapted  to 
accomplish  this  much  wished  for  end  than  the  bright, 
shining,  and  luscious  blackberry.  No  home  should  be 
without  it  in  abundance. 

LESSENING   THE   EFFECTS   OF   DROUGHT 

Blackberries  ripen  at  a  season  of  the  year  when  soil 
moisture  is  likely  to  be  much  depleted.  Hot  suns  and 
drying  winds  are  making  heavy  demands  on  the  plant 
which  in  turn  seeks  this  moisture  from  the  soil.  The 
plants  carry  a  heavy  crop  of  fruit  which  must  be  refined 
and  perfected  just  when  weather  conditions,  in  the  average 
season,  are  at  their  worst.  All  these  conditions  tend  to 
make  droughts  one  of  the  most  important  factors  with 
which  to  be  reckoned  in  blackberry  growing.  It  therefore 
seems  wise  to  discuss  the  methods  which  may  be  used  to 
reduce  the  injury  from  this  cause. 

The  character  of  the  soil  and  its  drainage  are  matters 
of  first  consideration.  Dry  sandy  or  gravelly  soils  should 
never  be  chosen.  No  soil  which  lacks  moisture  is  suitable. 
Neither  will  a  wet  soil  do;  one  which  is  deep  and  continu- 
ally moist  but  not  wet  is  the  ideal.  Artificial  drainage 
will  sometimes  be  needed  to  secure  the  desired  result. 


108  Bush-Fruits 

The  exposure  of  the  field  to  sun  and  wind  will  affect  the 
amount  of  water  which  the  plant  takes  from  the  soil. 
Evaporation  is  dependent  on  sunlight,  wind  velocity  and 
atmospheric  humidity.  The  latter  factor  cannot  be  con- 
trolled, but  a  northern  exposure  and  protection  from  pre- 
vailing winds  by  natural  or  artificial  windbreaks  will  in- 
fluence the  others. 

The  next  need  is  so  to  fit  and  prepare  the  soil,  by  its 
previous  treatment,  as  to  embody  in  it  the  greatest  pos- 
sible amount  of  decaying  vegetable  matter  (humus). 
Some  material  always  rotting  in  the  soil  should  be  the 
aim.  This,  more  than  any  other  one  factor,  will  help  the 
soil  to  store  up  moisture  for  that  trying  time  when  it  is 
so  much  needed. 

The  soil  preparation  should  be  deep  and  thorough. 
Water  must  often  be  taken  up  quickly  or  lost.  Good 
tillage,  both  before  and  after  planting,  helps  to  bring  this 
about. 

The  amount  of  plant-food  in  the  soil  may  greatly  in- 
fluence the  effect  of  drought.  Experiments  have  shown 
that  plants  growing  on  a  soil  lacking  in  plant-food,  require 
many  more  pounds  of  water  to  produce  a  pound  of  dry 
matter  than  when  growing  on  a  soil  which  is  rich.  Ap- 
parently the  soil  solution  from  the  poor  soil  is  weaker  and 
more  is  needed.  This  point  should  not  be  overlooked. 

Frequent  surface  tillage  or  thorough  mulching,  together 
with  keeping  down  weed  growth,  are  the  most  available 
methods  for  preventing  the  waste  of  soil  moisture  during 
the  growing  season.  Two  lines  of  effort  are  open  in  deal- 
ing with  the  moisture  problem.  The  first  consists  in 
putting  the  soil  in  condition  to  store  up  moisture;  the 


Removing  the  Plants  109 

second  in  preventing  the  waste  of  that  moisture.    Tillage 
and  mulching  have  to  do  with  the  latter. 

Pruning  may  also  influence  the  effect  of  drought.  By 
it  the  amount  of  fruit  which  the  plant  will  carry  is  largely 
determined.  If  given  too  heavy  a  load  the  plant  is  unable 
properly  to  develop  it  all  in  a  dry  season.  The  method 
of  training  used  may  also  have  some  influence. 

DURATION   OF   PLANTATIONS 

The  profitable  duration  of  a  blackberry  plantation, 
as  with  all  other  small  fruits,  depends  much  on  care  and 
management.  They  generally  last  longer  than  black 
raspberries,  perhaps  from  five  to  ten  years  on  the  average, 
longer  in  special  cases.  Attempts  to  lengthen  the  lifetime 
of  a  fruit  plantation  of  any  kind  are  rarely  profitable. 
It  is  better  to  force  the  plants  to  do  their  best,  get  what 
can  be  gotten  from  them  before  they  begin  to  decline, 
then  let  them  go,  to  be  replaced  by  others.  If  by  one 
system  of  management  a  plant  can  be  induced  to  produce 
as  much  in  three  years  as  it  ordinarily  would  in  five, 
the  three-year  return  is  to  be  preferred,  even  if  at  the 
end  of  that  time  the  plant  is  exhausted  and  no  longer 
profitable.  Others  are  ready  to  take  its  place,  on  other 
ground,  and  to  continue  the  high-pressure  production. 
The  greater  the  yield,  within  limits,  the  greater  the  profit 
and  the  more  fun  to  be  had  from  the  business. 

REMOVING   THE    PLANTS 

When  a  plantation  has  passed  its  usefulness  it  may 
become  a  difficult  task  to  get  rid  of  it.  The  capacity  of 


110  Bush-Fruits 

the  plants  for  throwing  up  shoots  from  broken  roots  is 
then  brought  into  full  play,  and  they  make  a  vigorous 
fight  for  life.  A  good  method  of  exterminating  them  is  to 
mow  off  and  burn  the  bushes,  then  plow  deep,  directly 
after  fruiting.  Thorough  harrowing  with  a  spring-tooth 
harrow  will  tear  out  many  of  the  stumps.  From  that 
time,  all  shoots  should  be  kept  down  by  some  system  of 
cultivation  which  will  cut  them  off  below  the  surface  of 
the  ground.  Replowing  some  two  months  later  will  often 
be  found  a  help.  While  some  shoots  may  appear  the  fol- 
lowing year,  with  this  system  of  treatment  they  will  cause 
no  serious  trouble  in  the  cultivation  of  ordinary  crops.  If 
the  land  is  to  be  used  for  fine  or  delicate  crops,  the  stumps 
will  need  to  be  removed. 


HAEDINESS 

Since  the  difference  between  a  full  crop,  with  good 
profits,  and  no  crop,  with  utter  loss,  may  depend  on  hardi- 
ness alone,  this  is  a  matter  of  no  little  importance.  In 
the  climate  of  central  New  York  varieties  like  Brunton's 
Early,  Topsy,  and  usually  Wilson's  Early  and  Wilson 
Junior,  generally  kill  to  the  ground  every  winter,  while 
Taylor,  Agawam,  Stone's  Hardy,  Snyder,  and  so  on  are 
slightly  or  not  at  all  injured. 

In  many  parts  of  the  West  and  Northwest,  as  Colorado, 
Nebraska,  Iowa,  Minnesota,  and  the  like,  no  varieties 
prove  hardy  without  winter  protection  and,  curiously 
enough,  the  matter  of  selection  for  hardiness  becomes  of 
less  import  there  than  in  milder  climates.  The  ability  to 
endure  summer  heat  is  there  the  important  consideration. 


Yields  111 

If  plants  are  to  remain  unprotected  during  the  winter,  the 
selection  of  varieties  should  be  largely  influenced  by  the 
question  of  hardiness.  The  method  of  protection  is  de- 
scribed in  the  introductory  chapter. 

YIELDS 

Blackberries  generally  yield  better  than  other  members 
of  the  bramble  family.  Not  only  do  they  yield  well  when 
growing  wild  among  the  rocks  and  woods,  and  even  under 
worse  conditions  which  may  sometimes  pass  under  the 
name  of  cultivation,  but  they  respond  promptly  and 
generously  to  liberal  care  and  attention.  In  answer  to  a 
request  for  an  estimate  of  what  each  considered  an  aver- 
age yield  to  the  acre  of  blackberries,  fifty  growers  in  differ- 
ent parts  of  the  country  gave  replies  varying  from  1,280 
to  10,000  quarts,  the  average  being  3,158  quarts,  or  over 
ninety-eight  bushels  to  the  acre.  These  figures,  obtained 
from  practical  growers,  are  worthy  of  credence.  Some 
of  the  estimates  are  very  high,  but  others  are  extremely 
low,  and  the  average  is  considerably  below  the  yield  which 
many  good  growers  are  securing.  It  is  safe  to  say,  there- 
fore, that  any  grower  whose  yields  fall  much  below  this 
average  is  not  living  up  to  his  possibilities,  and  unless 
some  uncontrollable  disease  or  insect  is  preying  upon  his 
plantation,  there  is  something  wrong  with  his  system  of 
management,  or  his  location  is  unfavorable. 

A  point  which  those  engaged  in  all  lines  of  agricul- 
tural production  need  to  appreciate,  is  that  the  bulk  of 
any  crop  is  required  to  defray  the  actual  cost  of  produc- 
tion, and  that  profit  lies  only  beyond  this  limit.  As  an 


112  Bush-Fruits 

illustration,  suppose  that  by  ordinary  methods  of  culti- 
vation an  acre  of  blackberries  produces  seventy  bushels, 
and  that  sixty  bushels  are  required  to  repay  the  cost  of 
production.  Now,  if  by  judiciously  increasing  the  cost 
of  production  to  seventy  bushels,  by  more  liberal  fertiliz- 
ing or  better  cultivation,  we  can  increase  the  yield  to 
ninety  bushels,  the  profit  is  doubled.  Nor  does  this  fully 
express  the  difference,  for  with  an  additional  expense  equiv- 
alent to  ten  bushels,  we  have  secured  an  additional 
profit  of  ten  bushels,  and  the  additional  outlay  has  paid 
a  return  of  one  hundred  per  cent  on  the  investment,  while 
the  first  ten  bushels  only  pay  sixteen  and  two-thirds  per 
cent  on  the  investment.  In  other  words,  one  acre  under 
the  second  management  is  better  than  two  acres  under 
the  first,  for  it  is  equivalent  to  growing  the  second  acre 
with  an  outlay  equal  to  only  ten  bushels,  instead  of  an 
outlay  equal  to  sixty  bushels. 

It  should  be  remembered  that  soil  and  climate  play 
an  important  part  in  returns.  To  secure  a  yield  of  5000 
quarts  under  some  conditions  is  easier  than  to  secure  3000 
quarts  under  other  conditions.  The  lesson  of  adaptation 
is  one  not  easily  learned.  Many  growers  are  struggling 
along  with  meager  returns  because  they  are  dealing  with 
an  unproductive  soil,  or  because  they  are  trying  to  bring 
about  something  for  which  the  locality  is  not  well  adapted. 
The  blackberry  is  not  a  fruit  which  is  universally  success- 
ful. In  some  localities  its  culture  may  prove  very  success- 
ful as  a  commercial  undertaking,  in  others  very  unsatis- 
factory. The  question  of  adaptability  should  be  one  of 
the  first  points  to  determine. 


Profits  113 


PROFITS 

To  foretell  profits  in  farming  operations  is  a  difficult 
undertaking.  The  facts  involved  are  too  variable.  Few 
growers  keep  records,  or  know  what  their  crops  cost. 
Of  those  who  do,  not  many  put  the  results  in  print.  Sug- 
gestions must,  therefore,  be  chiefly  in  the  nature  of  es- 
timates. While  intended  to  be  fairly  reliable  for  average 
conditions,  they  may  be  far  afield  for  any  given  farm  or 
crop.  The  following  figures  may  be  taken  as  a  rough 
estimate  of  the  cost  of  production  per  acre  under  ordinary 
farm  conditions. 

FIRST  YEAR 

Rent  of  Land $5.00 

Plowing  and  fitting  the  field 5 . 00 

Plants 15.00 

Planting 10.00 

Fertilizer  l 20.00 

Tillage  and  care 10.00 


$65.00 

1  Under  some   conditions  this  may  be  omitted  altogether  the 
first  season. 


It  is  customary  to  consider  that  part  of  this  cost  is 
offset  by  the  return  from  crops  planted  between  the  rows 
the  year  the  plants  are  set.  Whether  this  should  be  done, 
depends  chiefly  on  the  point  of  view.  Something  can  be 
secured  from  the  land  by  the  use  of  inter-crops,  and  it  is 
generally  wise  to  use  them.  Yet  it  should  be  remembered 
that  the  crop  would  have  been  larger  and  would  have  been 


114  Bush-Fruits 

produced  at  less  expense  to  the  unit  if  it  had  occupied  the 
entire  ground.  It  may  be  as  appropriate  to  charge  to 
the  blackberries  the  additional  yield  of  the  crop  which 
might  have  been  produced,  as  to  credit  them  with  what  was 
obtained.  The  reader  may  choose  his  own  method  of 
figuring. 

At  least  four  profitable  crops  of  fruit  may  be  expected 
from  the  plantation.  It  will  therefore  be  appropriate  to 
apportion  this  first  year's  outlay  to  these  crops.  The 
cost  for  subsequent  years,  exclusive  of  picking  and 
marketing,  may  then  be  estimated  somewhat  as  follows: 

Proportion  of  first  year's  expense $16.25 

Rent  of  land 5 .00 

Fertilizer 20.00 

Cultivation  and  hoeing 10 . 00 

Pruning  and  removing  old  canes 10.00 


Total $61.25 

The  partial  crop,  which  may  be  expected  the  second 
year,  should  about  meet  expenses.  After  the  first  year,  it 
is  fair  to  assume  that  an  average  of  3,000  quarts  to  the 
acre  should  be  secured,  with  favorable  soil  and  climate. 
The  profit  will  then  depend  on  the  net  price  a  quart  which 
it  is  possible  to  secure,  after  meeting  the  expenses  of  pick- 
ing, packing,  and  marketing.  With  a  net  price  of  five 
cents  a  quart  the  profit  would  be  about  $90  an  acre,  with 
the  cost  of  production  as  assumed  above. 

In  connection  with  these  figures,  is  presented  the  fol- 
lowing close  estimate  at  one  time  made  by  M.  A.  Thayer, 
of  Sparta,  Wisconsin.  They  serve  to  show  what  it  is  pos- 


Profits  115 

sible  for  a  thorough-going,  energetic  man  to  do  under 
special  conditions,  and  with  methods  worked  out  and 
adapted  to  his  own  needs. 

ONE  ACRE — FIRST  YEAR 

Plowing  ground $  1 . 50 

Harrowing  five  times 2 . 50 

Rolling  and  marking 1 .00 

2,000  Ancient  Briton  plants 40.00 

Setting  plants 7 . 50 

Cultivating  ten  times 3 . 75 

Hoeing  six  times 6 . 00 

Laying  down  for  winter 2 . 50 


First  year's  expense $64.75 


SECOND  YEAR 

Taking  up  plants  in  spring $  1 . 25 

400  new  plants  to  replace  dead  ones 8.00 

Setting  400  plants. 2.00 

60  posts  at  six  cents 3 . 60 

270  stakes  at  two  cents 5.40 

380  rods  No.  12  wire 12.60 

Setting  posts  and  stakes 5 . 00 

Stringing  wire 2 . 50 

Cultivating  ten  times 3 . 75 

Hoeing  four  times 4 . 00 

Two  loads  clover  mulching 8 .00 

Placing  clover  mulching 3 . 15 

Pinching-back 2.50 

Laying  down  for  winter 7 . 50 

Use  of  tools,  etc 6 . 00 


Total  for  two  years $140.00 


116  Bush-Fruits 

After  the  second  year  the  annual  expense  is  estimated 
as  follows: 

Taking  up  plants  in  the  spring $  2 . 50 

Cultivating  and  hoeing 8 . 00 

Mulching 12.00 

Nipping-back  and  trimming 5 . 00 

Laying  down  for  winter 7 . 50 

Tools,  etc 5.00 


$40.00 


The  estimates  for  labor  are  made  on  the  basis  of  paying 
$1.25  a  day  for  men  and  $2.50  a  day  for  a  man  and  team. 
The  system  of  mulching,  as  elsewhere  explained,  consists 
in  growing  clover  on  separate  pieces  of  ground,  cutting 
and  spreading  it  green  along  the  rows,  and  cultivating 
the  center.  The  expenses  of  gathering  and  marketing, 
Thayer  places  as  follows: 

Picking  per  quart SO . 

Boxes  and  cases 01 

Packing  and  selling 01 


Total  expense  per  quart $0.03^ 

Thayer  admits  that  these  figures  show  a  high  cost  of 
production,  but  feels  confident  that  any  reduction  means 
diminished  profits,  therefore  is  not  to  be  permitted.  This 
method  of  treatment  gave  over  2,000  bushels  from  ten 
acres  of  the  Ancient  Briton  variety  in  one  year.  This  is  a 
remarkable  yield,  but  the  average  on  those  farms  is  un- 
questionably far  above  that  of  most  growers.  Thayer 


The  Evergreen  Blackberries  117 

concludes  that  under  their  conditions  at  that  time,  a 
yield  of  200  bushels  an  acre  gave  a  net  profit  of  nearly 
$250  an  acre,  while  100  bushels  an  acre  would  give  about 
$80  profit,  and  fifty  bushels  to  the  acre  little  or  no  profit 
at  all. 

Instances  are  common  of  admirable  yields  during  a 
single  season.  One  grower  in  a  small  town  in  central 
New  York  sold  $500  worth  of  fruit  from  half  an  acre  in  a 
recent  year.  It  should  be  firmly  fixed  in  mind  that  all 
such  results  are  exceptional,  and  no  one  should  use  them 
as  a  basis  for  average  profits. 

It  may  safely  be  said,  however,  that  with  a  good  market, 
good  management,  intelligence  and  skill,  both  in  growing 
and  marketing  the  fruit,  a  profit  of  $100  an  acre  can  be 
expected  with  a  fair  degree  of  certainty  under  conditions 
of  soil  and  climate  which  will  warrant  the  growing  of 
blackberries  as  a  commercial  venture. 


THE  EVERGREEN  BLACKBERRIES 

Mention  should  be  made  of  the  evergreen  type  of  black- 
berries grown  in  some  localities  on  the  Pacific  coast.  These 
are  so  different  in  habit  that  the  methods  of  treatment 
demanded  have  little  in  common.  The  leaves  of  the 
plant  are  much  divided,  which  accounts  for  the  name 
cut-leaved  blackberry,  which  is  often  applied  to  it.  The 
thorns  are  numerous,  strong  and  recurved,  making  it  a 
troublesome  plant  to  handle.  The  chief  difference  be- 
tween this  species  and  the  common  blackberries  lies  in  its 
long  trailing  habit  of  growth  and  in  the  fact  that  the  canes 
live  from  year  to  year.  These  canes  grow  upright  for  a 


118  Bush-Fruits 

short  distance  then  bend  over  and  trail  along  the  ground, 
reaching  a  length  of  25  to  50  feet. 

A  method  of  handling  which  is  found  satisfactory  is  to 
set  the  plants  in  rows  eight  feet  apart,  and  from  eight  to 
sixteen  feet  apart  in  the  row,  according  to  variety.  The 
Himalaya  and  Mammoth  varieties  are  more  rampant 
growers  than  the  Evergreen.  A  trellis  is  provided  with 
two  wires,  which  are  placed  from  three  to  five  feet  from 
the  ground.  The  growing  canes  are  first  trained  along 
the  lower  wire,  two  or  three  in  each  direction.  They 
are  bent  gradually  and  carefully  tied  as  they  grow,  the 
aim  being  to  prevent  the  growth  of  laterals  as  much  as 
possible.  In  winter  or  spring,  these  long  canes  are  cut 
back  about  one-third.  Bearing  shoots  are  thrown  out 
along  the  remaining  part  as  in  the  Kniffen  system  of 
grape  training.  The  plant  is  renewed  from  year  to  year 
much  as  are  grape  vines.  The  new  canes  are  usually 
trained  along  one  wire  and  the  fruiting  ones  along  the 
other. 

Under  favorable  conditions,  plants  of  this  type  are  said 
to  yield  much  better  than  ordinary  kinds.  The  fruit  is 
said  to  be  firm  and  to  bear  shipping  well.  Himalaya  and 
Mammoth  are  reported  as  ripening  shortly  after  the  logan- 
berry and  about  with  Kittatinny  and  Snyder,  the  Ever- 
green later. 

Varieties  of  this  type  have  been  tried  from  time  to  time 
in  the  eastern  states  but  seem  never  to  have  shown  any 
value  except  in  limited  areas  along  the  Pacific  coast  where 
soil  and  climate  suit  their  peculiar  needs. 

The  Mammoth,  at  least,  is  more  properly  classed  as  a 
dewberry,  and  is  discussed  under  that  head. 


CHAPTER  V 
THE  DEWBERRIES 

THE  dewberry  as  a  cultivated  fruit  has  been  a  relatively 
recent  introduction  to  American  horticulture. 

At  the  summer  meeting  of  the  Fruit-Growers'  Society 
of  Western  New  York,  held  June  24,  1863,  James  Vick 
described  the  dewberries  grown  by  Dr.  Miner,  of  Honeoye 
Falls,  New  York,  and  his  method  of  training  them.  This 
was  the  same  as  the  present  method  of  tying  the  fruiting 
canes  to  stakes  about  five  feet  high,  and  allowing  the  new 
growth  to  run  at  will,  most  of  which  will  root  at  the  tips. 
He  was  growing  two  varieties,  one  of  which  was  some  ten 
days  earlier  than  the  other.  Mention  is  made  of  the 
fact  that  the  berries  of  the  earlier  variety  were  sometimes 
imperfect,  "a  common  fault  with  the  dewberry."  The 
other  variety  appeared  to  bear  uniformly  perfect  berries.1 
From  a  later  mention  of  these  varieties  2  it  seems  that 
they  were  sent  out  by  Dr.  Miner  to  some  extent,  but  there 
is  no  evidence  that  they  ever  received  varietal  names, 
and  therefore  they  were  probably  soon  lost  to  cultivation. 

It  appears  that  the  Bartel  was  the  first  named  variety 
introduced.  The  originator's  account  of  this,  together 
with  directions  for  its  management,  were  given  in  Purdy's 
Fruit  Recorder  for  1875,  p.  182.  It  does  not  appear  to 

1  Hovey's  Mag.  of  Hort.  1863,  p.  319. 

2  Ibid,  1868,  p.  286. 

119 


120  Bush-Fruits 

have  become  very  generally  known  at  that  time,  for  in 
1879  the  editor  of  "The  Gardener's  Monthly"  writes,1 
"Of  true  dewberries,  no  improved  kinds  are  known  under 
culture."  In  a  previous  number  of  the  same  volume, 
however,  N.  H.  Lindsay,  of  Bridgeport,  Connecticut,  is 
reported  as  having  cultivated  two  kinds  of  wild  dew- 
berries in  a  small  way  for  home  use,  taking  plants  from 
the  woods.  It  seems  that  even  he  did  not  know  how  to 
propagate  them,  although  a  nurseryman  and  presumably 
an  experienced  propagator. 

Even  as  late  as  1884  the  editor  of  "The  Country  Gentle- 
man" says  (page  329):  "We  are  not  aware  that  the  dew- 
berry (or  running  brier)  is  cultivated  for  sale  by  any 
nurseryman.  .  .  .  The  wild  dewberry  is  often  found 
along  neglected  fence-rows  or  in  rocky  or  sterile  fields, 
from  which,  if  desired,  it  may  be  transplanted  to  gardens, 
and  treated  like  garden  raspberries."  These  statements 
serve  to  show  how  recent  is  the  cultivation  of  the  dew- 
berry in  anything  like  a  commercial  extent.  It  was  not 
until  the  introduction  of  the  Lucretia,  which  was  brought 
into  general  notice  about  1886,  that  the  dewberry  began 
to  occupy  any  prominent  place  in  American  horticulture. 

So  much  for  the  history  of  the  dewberry.  But  what 
of  its  future?  Is  there  a  place  for  it  among  our  garden 
fruits;  and,  if  so,  will  it  be  able  to  fill  that  place  as  it 
should?  Coming,  as  it  does,  so  early  in  the  season,  before 
the  first  blackberries  are  ripe,  it  is  more  desirable  than  it 
otherwise  would  be.  Until  improved  by  breeding  and  se- 

1  Gardener's  Monthly,  Vol.  21,  p.  150.  See  Bailey,  Bui.  34, 
Cornell  Exp.  Sta.,  for  a  sketch  of  dewberry  history;  also  "  Evolution 
of  our  Native  Fruits." 


The  Dewberries  121 

lection  it  can  hardly  fill  the  place  which  its  co-laborers 
in  the  garden  are  ready  to  accede  to  it.  Unless  it  can  be 
induced  to  correct  some  of  its  bad  habits  and  overcome  its 
failings,  the  place  is  even  yet  likely  to  be  taken  by  some 
young,  vigorous  and  early-ripening  blackberry.  One 
serious  though  excusable  fault  of  the  dewberry  is  its  thorni- 
ness.  While  lack  of  fertilization  and  consequent  produc- 
tion of  imperfect  fruit  can  hardly  be  denied  as  a  family 
trait,  it  is  no  doubt  true  that  the  more  productive  mem- 
bers have  suffered  unjustly,  owing  to  the  behavior  of  the 
rogues  of  the  household.  There  is  no  disputing  the  fact 
that  stock  of  the  Lucretia  dewberry,  as  sold  about  the 
country,  has  been  badly  mixed.  As  received  and  grown 
at  the  Cornell  gardens,  it  comprised  two  distinct  sorts,  one 
with  small  blossoms,  more  delicate  growth,  and  small, 
imperfect  and  worthless  fruit;  the  other  with  large  blos- 
soms, vigorous  growth,  large,  plump  and  glossy  fruit. 
The  cuts  (Figs.  13  and  14)  well  illustrate  the  difference 
between  these  two  types,  which  is  in  itself  a  ready  explana- 
tion of  many  of  the  conflicting  opinions  regarding  the 
Lucretia. 

By  taking  the  best  of  what  we  already  have  as  a  basis 
for  future  improvement,  there  seems  to  be  no  reason  why 
the  dewberry  may  not  be  brought  to  such  a  state  of  per- 
fection as  shall  render  its  place  assured.  In  the  Wilson's 
Early  and  Wilson  Junior  blackberries  we  have  a  type 
intermediate  between  the  dewberry  and  the  blackberry. 
This  form  may  suggest  lines  of  breeding  which  in  time 
shall  produce  offspring  superior  to  anything  which  we 
now  have,  either  in  the  blackberry  or  the  dewberry.  We 
need  more  careful  and  skillful  breeders,  who  shall  breed 


122 


Bush-Fruits 


Fig.  13.  Lucretia  dewberry  from  a  good  plant. 


The  Dewberries 


123 


Fig.  14.  Lucretia  dewberry  from  a  poor  plant.     One-half  natural  size. 

plants  as  understandingly  as  animals  are  bred,  and  who 
shall  give  us  in  the  results  of  their  toil  the  fruit  treasures 
which  ought  ere  this  to  have  been  ours. 

In  this  particular  field  of  endeavor  the  Pacific  coast 
has  outstripped  the  East. 


124  Bush-Fruits 


SOIL   FOR   DEWBERRIES 

The  dewberry  is  generally  found  on  poor  or  sandy  soils 
the  country  over.  This  is  an  indication  that  compara- 
tively light,  sandy  soils  will  prove  best  adapted  to  its 
cultivation,  and  the  general  experience  of  growers  seems 
to  substantiate  the  supposition.  It  is  true  that  instances 
are  reported  of  success  from  nearly  all  kinds  of  soils,  but 
the  best  results  nearly  always  come  from  planting  on  com- 
paratively light,  sandy  ground. 

LOCATION 

The  location  will  doubtless  prove  to  be  as  important 
as  with  any  other  fruit,  when  the  culture  of  dewberries 
comes  to  be  better  understood.  In  parts  of  the  West, 
the  Windom  has  been  found  to  give  better  results  in  shady 
locations,  the  finest  berries  being  found  even  in  dense 
shade.  Because  of  its  habit  of  growing  on  dry,  sandy 
ground,  location  to  avoid  drought  may  not  be  so  important 
as  with  the  blackberry,  but  any  location,  like  a  cool 
northern  exposure,  which  will  tend  to  mitigate  the  hot, 
scorching  sun,  will  undoubtedly  prove  beneficial. 

FERTILIZERS 

Thus  far  the  necessity  for  fertilizers  has  hardly  been 
made  apparent,  and  it  is  doubtful  whether  at  the  time  of 
planting  they  will  often  be  needed.  If  plants  bear  as  they 
should,  the  addition  of  plant-food  later  may  be  expected 
to  be  of  service  on  many  soils.  The  same  principles 
which  apply  to  the  feeding  of  blackberries  may  be  expected 


Planting  125 

to  hold.    On  average  soils  the  demand  for  nitrogen  is  likely 
to  be  small. 

PROPAGATION 

The  dewberry  propagates  naturally  from  tips,  like  the 
black  raspberry.  If  increase  of  plants  is  important,  these 
tips  should  be  buried  when  their  growth  is  about  com- 
pleted. Covering  the  whole  cane  to  induce  rooting  along 
its  entire  length  would  seem  to  be  feasible,  if  speedy 
methods  are  desired.  Such  a  cane  cut  into  pieces  should 
form  many  plants;  and  the  prostrate  habit  of  the  plant 
would  favor  such  a  method. 

Dewberries  can  also  be  propagated  by  root-cuttings, 
the  same  as  blackberries.  The  method  for  doing  this  is 
explained  in  the  chapter  on  blackberries.  Since  it  is  a 
general  rule  that  those  plants  which  naturally  propagate 
by  suckers  also  propagate  most  easily  by  root-cuttings, 
a  little  more  care  may  be  demanded,  and  a  larger  percent- 
age of  failure  may  be  expected  than  with  blackberries. 

PLANTING 

The  same  general  rules  given  for  the  planting  of  the 
blackberry  will  apply  to  the  dewberry,  except  that  the 
furrow  to  receive  the  plants  need  not  be  quite  so  deep. 
The  distance  apart  at  which  they  are  to  be  placed  will  be 
largely  determined  by  the  method  of  training  to  be  em- 
ployed. If  to  be  trained  to  single  stakes,  four  feet  apart 
each  way  will  be  satisfactory;  if  to  wire  trellises,  six  feet 
by  perhaps  three  feet  in  the  row  will  be  more  convenient. 
If  to  be  trained  on  low,  flat,  slat  or  wire  trellises,  even 
a  greater  distance  between  the  rows  will  be  needed.  This 


126  Bush-Fruits 

method  demands  more  space  for  training  the  plants  than 
is  needed  for  their  maintenance. 

The  tendency  of  dewberries  to  fail  to  set  fruit  altogether, 
or  to  produce  small  and  imperfect  fruit,  is  a  point  which 
should  be  taken  into  consideration  when  planting.  There 
is  reason  to  believe  that  this  is  often  due  to  a  lack  of  proper 
fertilization.  .Whether  this  lack  of  fertilization  comes 
from  insufficient  pollen,  or  from  lack  of  potency  of  the 
pollen  which  reaches  the  stigma,  is  uncertain.  Whatever 
the  cause,  the  lack  is  apparent,  and  the  most  feasible  way 
of  overcoming  it  is  by  planting  different  kinds  together. 
It  has  been  conclusively  shown  that  the  pollen  of  many 
varieties  of  our  larger  fruits,  notably  pears  and  apples, 
has  not  the  power  to  properly  fertilize  the  pistils  of  the 
same  variety.  The  same  may  be  true  of  the  dewberries. 
At  any  rate,  better  results  seem  to  have  come  from  plant- 
ing more  than  one  kind  together.  Even  blackberries 
planted  alongside  have  seemed  to  produce  a  favorable 
effect  in  some  cases.  One  instance  is  reported  1  where 
dewberries  blossomed  full  for  several  years,  but  produced 
only  a  few  imperfect  berries.  Later  a  block  of  blackberries 
was  planted  beside  them,  and  when  these  came  into 
bearing,  the  dewberries  began  fruiting,  and  continued 
to  do  so  regularly.  This  is  an  indication,  though  not  proof, 
that  blackberry  pollen  may  fertilize  dewberries. 

TILLAGE 

Little  need  be  said  concerning  the  tillage  of  the  dew- 
berry.   Some  growers  even  advise  letting  the  plants  grow 
1  Trans.  111.  Hort.  Soc.,  1886,  382. 


Pruning  and  Training  127 

entirely  without  cultivation  or  care.  This  method  can 
hardly  recommend  itself,  unless  it  be  on  some  rough, 
uncultivable  and  otherwise  unutilized  piece  of  ground. 
As  the  season  advances,  the  young  canes  spread  out  over 
the  ground  and  tend  to  interfere  with  cultivation.  It 
is  only  necessary  to  direct  them  along  the  row,  like  straw- 
berry runners,  however,  and  continue  the  cultivation  but 
one  way,  if  the  plants  are  so  set  as  to  admit  of  cultivation 
both  ways  earlier. 

PRUNING   AND   TRAINING 

Very  little  pruning  is  required.  Simply  to  shorten  the 
canes  when  they  are  tied  up  in  spring,  if  too  long,  is  all 
that  is  necessary,  unless  there  is  a  tendency  to  produce 
too  many  canes,  when  all  but  four  or  five  should  be  re- 
moved. With  any  careful  system  of  cultivation  some 
method  of  training  is  essential.  Various  plans  have  been 
recommended  from  time  to  time,  only  part  of  which  are 
here  mentioned. 

One  plan  consists  of  a  low,  flat  trellis,  of  greater  or  less 
width,  eight  or  ten  inches  from  the  ground,  on  which  the 
plants  are  allowed  to  run.  This  may  be  a  narrow  one  of 
wire,  made  by  driving  stakes  into  the  ground,  ten  or  twelve 
feet  apart,  and  nailing  strips  of  boards  a  foot  or  more 
long,  across  the  top.  On  these  cross-strips  wires  are  drawn 
tightly,  one  at  each  end  and  usually  two  between.  An- 
other way  of  reaching  the  same  end  is  to  fasten  pieces  of 
boards  to  stakes,  running  the  boards  lengthwise  of  the 
row,  one  on  either  side,  and  nailing  slats  across  between 
them.  Such  a  low.  flat  trellis  raises  the  fruit  off  the 


128  Bush-Fruits 

ground  and  keeps  it  clean,  but  picking  is  inconvenient  and 
cultivation  is  more  difficult. 

A  second  plan  consists  in  training  to  an  upright  wire 
trellis,  after  the  manner  of  grapes.  The  young  canes  are 
allowed  to  run  on  the  ground,  and  are  tied  up  to  the 
wires  the  following  spring.  This  is  a  very  satisfactory 
method,  although  it  admits  of  cultivation  only  one  way. 

A  most  simple  and  satisfactory  plan  is  the  one  which 
was  recommended  by  A.  J.  Cay  wood  as  early  as  1888. 1 
Let  his  own  words  explain  it: 

"I  plant  them  as  I  do  red  raspberries,  four  feet  apart 
each  way,  cultivating  both  ways  until  the  fore  part  of 
June,  when  the  renewals  get  too  long  to  do  so.  We  then 
direct  the  renewals  of  each  row  along  the  bottoms  of  the 
hills,  and  cultivate  the  other  way  as  long  as  required,  and 
one  man  has  done  the  directing  of  our  patch  in  a  day. 
The  old  canes  are  taken  from  the  stakes  any  time  after 
the  fruit  is  off,  before  tying  up  in  the  spring.  The  re- 
newals are  left  on  the  ground  all  winter,  which  is  suf- 
ficient protection  here,  but  if  it  is  necessary  to  protect 
them  in  colder  regions,  their  prostrate  position  facilitates 
the  work. 

"In  the  spring,  one  draws  the  entire  hill  from  under 
the  other  hills  in  the  row,  and  holds  them  to  a  stake, 
while  a  boy  ties  them  tightly.  This  can  be  done  as  rapidly 
as  tying  red  raspberries.  I  think  my  patch  was  the  first 
managed  on  this  plan.  We  have  tried  the  windrow  sys- 
tem, but  like  staking  the  plants  better." 

If  the  old  canes  are  cut  away  as  soon  as  through  fruit- 
ing, the  young  ones  can  then  be  tied  to  the  stake  until 
1  Popular  Gardening,  Vol.  IV,  p.  33. 


Killing  out  the  Patch  129 

winter,  and  cultivation  go  on  unimpeded.  This  may 
favor  a  better  development  and  maturity  of  the  canes 
than  when  they  are  allowed  to  run  on  the  ground. 

HARVESTING   AND   MARKETING 

Whatever  applies  to  the  harvesting  and  marketing  of 
blackberries  will  apply  equally  well  to  dewberries,  except 
that,  coming  earlier,  they  have  the  market  more  nearly 
to  themselves.  The  vines  are  viciously  thorny,  and  the 
fruit  apt  to  be  so  concealed  within  them  as  to  render  the 
picking  difficult  and  painful.  Training  the  plants  to  a 
stake  or  trellis  will  in  part  obviate  this  difficulty. 

The  fruit  carries  well,  and  can  be  put  into  market  in 
good  condition.  Like  many  of  the  blackberries,  though 
perhaps  in  a  more  marked  degree,  it  has  the  habit  of  turn- 
ing black  before  it  is  ripe.  If  picked  then  it  is  sour  and 
undesirable;  for  home  market  it  should  be  allowed  to  get 
thoroughly  ripe  before  being  gathered. 

DURATION   OF   PLANTATIONS 

Dewberries  persist  well  in  the  soil,  sometimes  too  well, 
for  after  they  have  served  their  purpose,  it  is  often  difficult 
to  get  rid  of  them.  They  seem  often  to  be  unproductive 
for  the  first  two  or  three  years,  afterward  coming  into 
more  uniform  and  prolific  bearing,  and  continuing  in 
many  cases  for  a  number  of  years. 

KILLING   OUT   THE   PATCH 

When  it  becomes  necessary  to  rid  a  plot  of  ground  of 
them,  vigorous  measures  must  be  adopted.  While  they 


130  Bush-Fruits 

do  not  propagate  naturally  by  suckers,  yet  when  the  roots 
are  torn  and  broken,  pieces  which  are  left  in  the  ground 
have  a  remarkable  ability  for  bursting  forth  into  plants. 
The  method  advised  for  destroying  the  blackberry  is  the 
best  that  can  be  recommended  for  killing  off  dewberries; 
namely,  mowing  and  plowing  directly  after  fruiting,  fre- 
quent cultivation  afterwards,  and  replowing  before  winter. 

HARDINESS 

The  inherent  hardiness  of  the  dewberry  may  not  be 
equal  to  that  of  many  varieties  of  the  blackberry,  yet  its 
habit  of  growth  tends  to  afford  it  protection  which  enables 
it  to  withstand  the  cold  of  winter,  in  most  cases,  as  well 
as  the  blackberries.  If  not  entirely  hardy  in  some  locali- 
ties, the  ease  with  which  it  can  be  protected  in  winter  is 
certainly  a  point  in  its  favor.  The  older  canes  will  nat- 
urally be  cut  away  before  winter,  and  in  any  event  the 
protection  of  them  is  of  no  benefit.  The  young  canes, 
which  lie  directly  on  the  ground,  and  which  have  been 
trained  along  the  row  in  cultivating,  are  in  the  most  con- 
venient position  possible  for  being  covered  with  soil  or 
mulch.  In  parts  of  the  country  where  all  kinds  must  be 
protected  to  give  profitable  results,  this  is  really  a  point 
of  considerable  importance  in  favor  of  the  dewberry. 

YIELD   OF  DEWBERRIES 

The  yield  to  be  expected  is  one  of  the  moot  points  in 
dewberry  culture.  There  is  the  greatest  possible  diversity 
in  reports,  some  growers  finding  it  highly  satisfactory, 


The  Western  Dewberries  131 

while  others  are  disgusted  with  it.  Much  of  this  diversity 
of  opinion,  and  much  of  the  failure  to  secure  good  results 
is,  without  doubt,  due  to  the  mixed  and  inferior  character 
of  many  of  the  plants  which  have  been  sold.  Even  where 
they  succeed,  they  have  not  been  grown  very  extensively, 
as  a  rule,  and  any  reliable  estimate  of  an  average  yield 
can  hardly  be  formed. 

PROBABLE   PROFITS 

With  the  question  of  yield  so  much  in  doubt,  the  ques- 
tion of  profit  must  also  be  unsettled.  It  may  be  said, 
however,  that  those  who  succeed  in  obtaining  a  good  yield 
nearly  always  find  them  profitable,  owing  to  their  season 
of  ripening  and  consequent  high  price. 

THE   WESTERN   DEWBERRIES 

On  the  Pacific  Coast,  varieties  of  the  dewberry  class 
have  attained  great  commercial  importance.  The  Ever- 
green blackberry  (see  page  117),  owing  to  its  habit  of 
growth  may  be  readily  classed  among  the  dewberries.  But 
the  loganberry  and  the  Mammoth,  seedlings  of  the  native 
western  dewberry  (Rubus  vitifolius),  have  become  most 
prominent.  Both  of  these  varieties  were  originated  by 
Judge  J.  H.  Logan  of  Santa  Cruz,  California,  from  seeds 
of  the  western  dewberry  taken  from  plants  growing  beside 
an  old  variety  of  red  raspberry  and  the  Texas  Early  black- 
berry. This  blackberry  is  an  upright  species  which  in 
the  mild  climate  of  California,  possesses  the  charac- 
teristics of  an  evergreen. 


132  Bush-Fruits 

The  loganberry  has  been  thought  to  be  a  hybrid  between 
the  western  dewberry  and  the  European  red  raspberry. 
The  fruit  is  large  and  early,  ripening  from  about  the  mid- 
dle of  May  to  the  first  of  June,  according  to  locality.  On 
its  surface  the  berry  appears  like  a  raspberry  and  its  color 
is  a  bright  glowing  red,  which  changes  to  a  dull  purplish 
red  when  fully  ripe.  It  has  a  core,  and  parts  from  the 
calyx  like  a  blackberry.  The  plant  possesses  all  the  char- 
acteristics of  the  wild  dewberry,  but  is  even  more  vigor- 
ous. It  roots  at  the  tips  and  never  throws  up  suckers. 
It  bears  heavily,  as  much  as  twenty-five  pounds  having 
been  gathered  from  a  single  plant.  The  fruit  is  of  good 
quality  and  popular,  having  reached  much  commercial 
importance.  Phases  of  dewberry  culture  are  illustrated 
in  Plates  IV  and  VI. 

While  very  successful  in  the  far  West,  especially  in 
southern  California  and  the  central  Coast  Region,  the 
loganberry  does  not  thrive  in  the  East.  Its  growth  is 
easily  stimulated  by  warm  weather,  then  is  killed  by 
succeeding  cold  weather.  Even  if  the  plant  survives  the 
winter  the  blossoms  are  likely  to  be  caught  by  spring 
frosts. 

Judge  Logan  believes  the  Mammoth  dewberry  to  be  a 
cross  between  the  dewberry  and  the  Early  Texas  black- 
berry. Its  fruit  is  similar  to  that  of  the  wild  dewberry, 
except  in  size,  being  very  large,  sometimes  reaching  a 
length  of  two  and  one-half  inches.  It  is  jet  black  in  color, 
less  acid  than  the  loganberry,  and  ripens  some  two  weeks 
later.  It  is  described  as  sweet  and  delicious  when  thor- 
oughly ripe,  better  than  the  loganberry  for  eating  raw, 
but  less  desirable  when  cooked  and  utterly  insipid  in 


The  Western  Dewberries  133 

shortcake.  The  plant  is  a  rampant  grower.  Judge  Logan 
tells  of  a  plant  on  his  grounds  which  grew  in  one  season, 
one  cane  with  one  hundred  and  forty-nine  feet  of  fruiting 
wood.  It  produces  heavily  in  the  land  of  its  origin  and 
is  an  important  fruit  along  the  coast.  Apparently  it  does 
not  thrive  in  the  eastern  states. 


CHAPTER  VI 
MISCELLANEOUS  BRAMBLES 

WHILE  raspberries,  blackberries  and  dewberries  of  the 
types  which  we  have  described  in  the  foregoing  chapters 
are  the  only  brambles  of  much  commercial  importance 
in  this  country,  there  are  nevertheless  a  few  outlying  types 
to  which  we  may  profitably  give  attention. 

THE    ORIENTAL   RASPBERRIES 

At  least  four  species  of  oriental  or  Japanese  raspberries 
have  found  their  way  into  the  United  States,  the  best 
known  probably  being  the  one  reintroduced  a  few  years 
ago  under  the  name  of  Japanese  wineberry.  They  have 
proved  less  valuable  than  many  other  Japanese  fruits, 
and  have  little  to  recommend  them.  They  are  not  likely 
to  become  popular  nor  to  be  grown  to  any  great  extent, 
though  two  of  them  have  some  value  as  ornamental 
plants. 

The  mayberry  (Japan  golden  mayberry). — This  was 
raised  by  Luther  Burbank,  of  California,  and  is  said  to 
have  been  produced  from  seeds  of  Rubus  palmatus,  a 
Japanese  species,  crossed  with  the  Cuthbert  raspberry. 
It  is  claimed  to  produce  a  bush  six  to  eight  feet  high, 
bearing  numerous  large  white  blossoms,  which  are  fol- 
lowed by  "large,  sweet,  glossy,  golden,  semi-transparent 

134 


The  Oriental  Raspberries  135 

berries,"  which  ripen  in  advance  of  strawberries.  It  ap- 
pears to  have  developed  little  value  as  yet.  The  writer 
was  unable  to  make  this  plant  live  in  Nebraska  some  years 
ago. 

The  strawberry-raspberry. — This  peculiar  fruit  belongs 
to  a  species  found  wild  in  Japan,  China  and  the  East 
Indies,  and  known  to  botanists  as  Rubus  roscefolius,  or 
to  a  closely  related  species,  Rubus  illecebrosus.  It  has 
been  commonly  referred  to  in  horticultural  literature  under 
the  name  R.  sorbifolius,  but  this  appears  to  be  only  a 
synonym  of  the  latter  name.  The  double  form  of  this 
same  species  has  been  long  known  as  a  greenhouse  plant, 
cultivated  for  its  flowers,  though  apparently  but  little 
grown.  As  recently  introduced  from  Japan  under  the 
name  strawberry-raspberry,  it  is  of  interest  chiefly  as  a 
curiosity,  and  may  be  worth  growing  for  that  purpose  or 
as  an  ornamental  plant.  It  is  herbaceous  in  our  climate, 
dying  down  to  the  ground  each  winter  and  springing  up 
from  the  roots  in  spring.  It  throws  up  innumerable 
suckers,  making  a  perfect  mat  of  bright  colored  foliage. 
The  leaves  have  a  central  stalk  with  five  to  seven  oppo- 
site narrow  leaflets,  and  are  really  very  pretty.  The  mat 
of  plants  is  so  dense  that  it  will  keep  down  nearly  all 
weeds,  and  the  plants  continue  to  bloom  and  fruit  through- 
out the  greater  portion  of  the  season.  The  blossoms  are 
white,  pretty  and  sweet-scented,  and  the  berries  bright 
and  showy,  a  clump  of  the  plants  making  an  attractive 
bed.  It  is  unproductive,  and  the  fruit  in  its  fresh  state  is 
rather  unpalatable,  varying  from  sour  and  insipid  to 
somewhat  bitter.  When  cooked,  however,  it  is  said  to 
develop  a  pleasant  flavor  midway  between  the  strawberry 


136  Bush-Fruits 

and  the  raspberry,  and  to  give  a  brilliant,  rich  garnet 
color  to  the  syrup. 

The  wineberry  (Japanese  wineberry). — This  is  a  rasp- 
berry which  is  found  wild  in  the  mountains  of  central  and 
northern  Japan.  Its  botanical  name,  now  well  known,  is 
Rubus  phcenicolasius.  It  forms  a  bush  three  to  seven 
feet  high,  with  somewhat  spreading  and  rambling  canes, 
which  are  thickly  covered  with  bright  red  hairs  and  weak 
prickles,  standing  out  at  right  angles  to  the  stem.  The 
leaves  are  light  green  and  whitish  below.  The  flowers 
are  very  small,  white,  with  large,  hairy,  viscous  sepals, 
which  close  over  the  fruit  again  after  blooming  and  keep 
it  entirely  covered  until  about  ripening  time,  when  they 
again  open.  The  berry  is  then  white,  but  turns  bright 
red  within  two  or  three  days,  becoming  sweet  and  agree- 
able; said  to  be  somewhat  intermediate  in  flavor  between 
the  red  and  the  black  raspberry.  Seeds  were  sent  from 
Japan  to  J.  T.  Lovett,  in  the  summer  of  1887,  by  C.  C. 
Georgeson.  In  1889  the  stock  raised  from  this  seed  was 
sold  to  John  Lewis  Childs,  who  introduced  it  under  the 
name  of  Japanese  wineberry.1  The  berry  is  of  good  size, 
firm  and  handsome,  and  owing  to  its  peculiar  covering  is 
exempt  from  insect  attacks.  It  has  not  shown  any  real 
commercial  value  in  the  United  States,  being  generally 
tender  and  unproductive.  It  is  a  peculiar  and  attractive 
plant,  and  well  worth  growing  as  an  ornamental.  It  had 
been  known  in  this  country  and  sold  under  its  true  bo- 
tanical name  by  Ellwanger  &  Barry,  and  perhaps  by  other 
nurserymen,  long  before  its  dissemination  by  Mr.  Childs. 
It  was  described  in  "The  Gardener's  Monthly"  for 
1  Amer.  Gar.,  1891,  204. 


The  Oriental  Raspberries 


137 


Fig.  15.  Rubus  cratcegifolius  (X2/a). 

January,  1880,  and  received  soon  after  by  the  editor, 
Thomas  Meehan,  under  the  name  Rubus  Hoffmeisteriana. 
The  Chinese  raspberry  (Rubus  cratcegifolius)  (Fig.  15). — 
This  raspberry  possesses  little  value  as  a  fruit-producing 
plant,  but  makes  a  handsome  ornamental  shrub,  and  is 
well  worth  growing  for  that  purpose.  Its  flowers  are  in- 
conspicuous, but  its  foliage  and  habit  are  attractive,  and 


138  Bush-Fruits 

its  autumn  coloring  is  often  superb.    It  is  more  fully  de- 
scribed among  the  ornamental  species. 

Rubus  xanthocarpus  was  introduced  by  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture  as  a  fruit-bearing  plant  but 
seems  not  to  have  proved  valuable. 

ORNAMENTAL   SPECIES 

We  are  accustomed  to  think  of  the  members  of  this 
family  only  as  fruit-producing  plants,  yet  many  of  them 
possess  considerable  attractiveness  as  ornamentals,  and 
are  worthy  of  a  place  in  any  grounds.  Some  of  them  are 
beautiful  in  themselves,  especially  if  grown  in  free  and 
natural  clumps,  but  more  especially  are  they  valuable  for 
grouping  with  other  trees  and  shrubs.  Many  of  the  most 
desirable  species  are  natives  of  America,  and  possibly  be- 
cause of  this  are  better  appreciated  in  Europe  than  here. 
We  are  wont  to  pass  by  beautiful  things  growing  at  our 
doors  for  something  less  desirable  which  comes  from  a 
tropical  or  foreign  country. 

Rubus  odoratus,  the  purple-flowering  raspberry,  or 
thimbleberry,  is  so  common  throughout  the  greater  por- 
tion of  the  eastern  part  of  the  United  States  that  we 
scarcely  think  of  it  as  being  ornamental.  Yet  it  is  a  very 
pretty  and  attractive  shrub.  It  is  beautiful  both  in 
flower  and  fruit,  and  doubly  desirable  because  it  con- 
tinues its  blossoming  and  fruiting  period  over  so  long  a 
time.  The  foliage  alone  is  attractive,  regardless  of  the 
blossoms.  This  species  is  frequently  mentioned  among 
ornamentals  in  European  journals.  (Fig.  16.) 

Rubus  parviflorus,  the  Rocky  Mountain  thimbleberry, 


Ornamental  Species  139 

erroneously  called  salmon-berry,  is  closely  related.  It  is 
better  known  as  R.  Nuikanus,  but  since  the  former  name 
has  been  found  to  be  the  older  it  must  now  take  the  pref- 
erence. This  species  and  its  varieties  are  found  in  the 
region  of  the  great  lakes  and  westward  to  the  Pacific 


Fig.  16.  Rubus  odoratus 


coast.  Its  fruit  seems  to  have  been  rather  more  important 
in  the  wild  state  than  that  of  R.  odoratus,  but,  in  general 
the  species  is  much  the  same,  except  that  the  flowers  are 
white.  Few  attempts  seem  to  have  been  made  to  culti- 
vate it.  If  it  could  be  made  to  succeed  well,  it  would  be  a 
desirable  plant  to  group  with  the  eastern  species.  (Fig.  17.) 
The  most  attractive  member  of  this  section  of  the  genus 
is  undoubtedly  Rubus  deliciosus,  of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 


140 


Bush-Fruits 


Pig.  17.  Rubus  paroiflorus  (X1/8-) 

This,  like  the  two  species  already  mentioned,  has  simple 
leaves,  three  to  five-lobed,  serrate,  but  more  rounded  than 
in  those  species.  The  flowers  are  large,  pure  white  and 
attractive.  So  far  as  reported,  it  has  generally  proved 
successful,  though  it  does  not  flourish  under  the  hot  sun 
and  drying  winds  in  Nebraska.  It  is  worthy  of  more 


Ornamental  Species 


141 


general  cultivation 
than  it  has  yet  re- 
ceived. It  is  some- 
what difficult  to  prop- 
agate, which  will 
naturally  render  it 
more  expensive  and 
harder  to  get  than  it 
otherwise  would  be. 
There  are  nurserymen 
in  the  West,  however, 
who  make  a  specialty 
of  collecting  these 
mountain  plants,  and 
growing  them  until 
accustomed  to  culti- 
vation before  offering  / 
them  for  sale,  or  even 
propagating  them 
wholly  in  the  nursery. 
Plants  from  such 
sources  can  readily  be 
obtained,  and  will  gen- 
erally prove  satisfac- 
tory. (Fig.  18.) 

Rubus  cratcegifolius 
is  an  oriental  species 
of  some  ornamental 
value  which  has  been 
grown  somewhat  in 
this  country.  Its 
chief  merit  lies  in  its 
foliage.  The  flowers 


Fig.  18,  Rubus  deliciosus  (X2/3)« 


142  Bush-Fruits 

are  small  and  inconspicuous,  and  the  fruit  small,  though 
bright  red  when  ripe.  The  foliage  is  dense  and  bright 
green,  coloring  well  in  autumn,  and  the  bush  is  pleasing 
in  its  habit  of  growth.  It  possesses  considerable  value  as  an 
ornamental  plant,  although  there  is  nothing  striking  about 
it.  It  is  generally  hardy,  and  will  mass  well  with  other 
plants  and  shrubs.  In  Nebraska  it  proved  disappointing 
in  regard  to  hardiness,  being  injured  by  the  winters,  even 
when  protected.  Yet  the  rich  autumn  color  developed  by 
the  foliage  on  the  young  shoots  thrown  up  from  the  root 
in  spring  has  offset  the  loss  of  the  older  canes.  It  is  es- 
pecially recommended  for  holding  banks  and  covering 
waste  places. 

Rubus  arcticus,  though  a  very  pretty  little  species, 
can  hardly  be  expected  to  succeed  in  cultivation.  It  is 
a  native  of  the  far  north,  and  only  extends  southward 
upon  the  high  mountain  ranges.  It  is  the  most  delicate 
and  one  of  the  prettiest  members  of  the  family,  and  would 
be  very  desirable  if  it  could  be  grown. 

Rubus  phoenicolasius,  the  "Japanese  wineberry,"  has 
been  brought  more  prominently  before  the  public  than 
most  other  ornamental  species  (page  136).  Its  chief  at- 
traction lies  in  the  peculiar  reddish  hairy  character  of  the 
plant.  Except  in  favorable  localities,  this  is  all  there  is  to 
recommend  it,  for  the  canes  are  killed  to  the  ground  every 
winter,  and  there  are  consequently  no  flowers  or  fruit.  The 
oddity  of  the  fruit  is  one  of  its  attractive  features,  when- 
ever any  is  produced.  This  is  enclosed  in  the  long,  bristly 
calyx-lobes  until  it  ripens.  It  is  not  well  adapted  to  plant- 
ing in  clumps  and  masses,  like  most  of  the  species  pre- 
viously mentioned. 


Ornamental  Species 


143 


Fig.  19.  Rubus  spectabilis 

Rubus  spectabilis,  the  salmon-berry,  is  a  showy  member 
of  the  family,  found  native  from  California  northward 
along  the  Pacific  coast.  It  is  a  vigorous-growing  shrub, 
with  leaves  made  up  of  three  sharp-pointed,  sharply 
toothed  leaflets,  or  occasionally  deeply  three-lobed  only. 
The  flowers  are  red  or  purple,  large  and  showy,  and  the 


144  Bush-Fruits 

fruit  large  and  good,  though  probably  not  abundant 
enough  to  render  it  worthy  of  cultivation  on  that  account. 
It  seems  to  succeed  well  in  England,  and  should  do  equally 
well  in  many  parts  of  our  own  country.  It  propagates 
rapidly  from  suckers,  and  may  sometimes  need  to  be  held 
in  check.  It  is  worthy  of  thorough  trial,  for  it  is  really  a 
very  attractive  plant.  (Fig.  19.) 

Rubus  latiniatus,  the  cut-leaved  blackberry,  has  been 
brought  to  notice  from  time  to  time  as  a  desirable  orna- 
mental, and  heralded  as  a  wonderful  fruit-bearing  plant. 
Its  names  have  been  numerous,  including  Parsley-leaved, 
Oregon  Evergreen,  Oregon  Climbing  and  Sandwich  Is- 
land. Sometimes  it  has  been  styled  a  dewberry,  and  some- 
times a  blackberry.  It  is  interesting  from  the  peculiar 
subdivision  of  its  leaves,  and  an  occasional  plant  may 
prove  useful  in  certain  places,  but  aside  from  this  feature 
it  possesses  no  ornamental  qualities  worthy  of  special 
note.  This  is  a  European  species,  to  which  Americans 
have  given  more  attention  than  is  given  to  it  across  the 
water,  though  in  some  localities  there  it  appears  to  be 
prized  for  its  fruit  production.  In  this  country  it  produces 
little  or  nothing  except  along  the  Pacific  coast.  For  a 
discussion  of  it  in  this  connection  see  the  chapter  on  black- 
berries (page  117).  The  plant  is  so  desperately  thorny, 
that  to  attempt  to  pick  its  fruit  except  where  carefully 
trained  would  be  well-nigh  hazardous. 

The  form  commonly  offered  for  sale  may  be  described 
as  follows:  Stems  nearly  round,  more  or  less  trailing, 
fertile  ones  erect,  prickles  small  at  the  base,  but  recurved 
and  strong  above,  very  numerous;  leaves  much  dissected 
and  sharply  serrate;  fruit  roundish,  black,  grains  large, 


Ornamental  Species  145 

sweet,  with  a  peculiar  musky  flavor,  borne  in  loose  pan- 
icles. It  differs  from  other  brambles  in  the  fact  that  the 
canes  are  perennial  and  continue  to  bear  fruit  on  the  old 
wood.  It  is  best  adapted  to  mild  climates. 

The  Double  White  and  Double  Pink  brambles  are 
also  European  species,  but  they  have  been  long  known  in 
this  country.  The  flowers  are  said  to  resemble  miniature 
roses  more  than  they  do  those  of  the  other  members  of 
the  family.  They  are  reported  to  be  well  adapted  for  use 
as  single  specimens,  and  it  is  only  when  thus  planted, 
giving  them  a  chance  for  full  and  symmetrical  develop- 
ment, that  their  beauty  is  to  be  fully  appreciated.  These 
pretty  forms  have  never  become  so  popular  and  common 
as  they  deserve  to  be;  apparently  they  should  be  better 
known. 

There  are  several  other  species,  not  so  well  known  as 
the  above,  which  may  in  time  prove  themselves  worthy 
of  being  planted  for  ornamental  purposes.  One  of  these 
is  Rubus  trifidus,  or  fire  raspberry,  the  name  applying  to 
the  bright  red  color  of  the  foliage  in  autumn.  This  has 
been  tried  at  the  Arnold  arboretum  and  recommended 
for  wider  planting. 

Another  very  interesting  species,  which  possibly  might 
succeed  here,  is  Rubus  Henryi,  from  China.  It  belongs  to 
the  simple-leaved  section  of  the  genus,  and  is  described 
as  "a  tall,  climbing  shrub,  with  deeply  three-lobed,  thick 
leaves,  glabrous  above  and  clothed  with  a  white  tomentum 
below;  flowers  small,  red,  in  terminal  racemes."  It  may 
be  that  this  would  prove  more  interesting  to  botanists, 
owing  to  its  distinct  character,  than  it  would  to  plant- 
lovers  in  general. 


146  Bush-Fruits 

From  the  above  list  it  will  be  seen  that  the  genus, 
though  not  considered  an  ornamental  one,  is  far  from  being 
destitute  of  ornamental  qualities.  In  addition  to  these 
more  strictly  so-called  ornamental  features,  the  fruit- 
producing  members  of  the  family  possess  charms  to  the 
true  lover  of  fruits  which  are  not  to  be  despised.  A  well- 
grown  row  of  red  raspberries,  with  the  scarlet  fruit  peeping 
out  from  among  the  green  foliage,  or  a  row  of  blackberry 
bushes  covered  with  clusters  of  shining  black  berries,  is  a 
sight  so  attractive  that  it  will  be  appreciated  by  many  a 
person  on  whom  the  charms  of  a  strictly  ornamental 
plant  would  fall  unheeded.  It  may,  indeed,  attract  the 
attention  of  the  most  fastidious. 

A  number  of  other  species,  chiefly  from  China,  have  been 
introduced  into  cultivation  for  ornamental  purposes,  and 
some  with  the  hope  of  securing  fruit  of  value.  Many  of 
them  are  trailing  species  suitable  for  training  over  arbors 
and  trellises.  Some  have  ornamental  foliage  and  some 
are  evergreen.  They  have  received  more  attention  in 
England  but  a  number  of  species  have  been  tested  at  the 
Arnold  Arboretum  in  Massachusetts.  Most  of  them  have 
lacked  hardiness  there.  They  do  not  seem  therefore  to 
offer  any  great  promise  to  the  American  plant-lover. 


'CHAPTER  VII 
VARIETIES  OF  RASPBERRIES 

To  describe  the  varieties  of  bush-fruits  in  such  a  manner 
that  the  grower  can  determine  them  from  the  description 
has  long  since  become  impossible.  Varieties  now  run  into 
the  hundreds  and  differ  so  little  that  other  means  of  de- 
termining them  must  be  employed.  Yet  a  brief  descrip- 
tion or  mention  of  those  varieties  known  to  have  been 
grown  in  America  may  be  of  service  in  several  ways.  Du- 
plication of  names,  and  consequent  confusion  are  common 
at  best.  A  complete  list,  readily  available,  should  prevent 
this. 

No  more  important  question  confronts  the  fruit-grower 
than  the  choice  of  varieties  and  few  lines  of  progress  will 
contribute  more  to  his  success  than  will  careful  work  in  the 
improvement  of  varieties.  A  history  of  varieties,  how  and 
where  they  have  originated,  the  sources  from  which  they 
have  sprung  and  the  trend  of  their  development  is  there- 
fore of  value  in  several  ways. 

The  lists  are  arranged  in  two  groups,  one  including  the 
black  raspberries,  the  other  the  red  and  purple-cane 
varieties.  The  latter  group  has  become  so  complex  and  the 
types  so  intermingled  that  it  seems  unwise  to  attempt 
longer  to  keep  them  separate. 

While  the  present  list  cannot  be  complete,  it  will  con- 
tain the  greater  number  of  the  varieties  which  have  been 

147 


148  Bush-Fruits 

grown  and  probably  all  of  those  which  have  become  prom* 
inent. 

BLACK   RASPBERRIES 

Rubus  occidentalis 

Black-caps  form  the  youngest  group  of  raspberries  in 
cultivation,  but  are  now  the  most  important.  Immense 
strides  have  been  made  since  Nicholas  Longworth  first 
transferred  the  Ohio  Everbearing  to  his  dooryard  in  1832. 
The  species  adapts  itself  so  readily  to  cultivation,  and  is  so 
uniformly  hardy  and  productive,  ripening  its  fruit  in  a 
comparatively  short  time,  and  withal  is  so  good  to  eat, 
that  its  popularity  is  well  merited.  Its  adaptability  to 
being  grown  as  a  farm  crop,  for  evaporating  purposes,  has 
also  given  a  stimulus  to  its  cultivation.  The  future  of  the 
black  raspberry  is  promising. 

Very  little  need  be  said  concerning  the  botanical  char- 
acters of  the  black-cap,  since  the  species  to  which  it  be- 
longs, Rubus  occidenialis,  is  so  distinct  from  the  other  cul- 
tivated species  of  raspberries.  The  color  of  the  fruit  and 
method  of  propagation  are  alone  sufficient  to  distinguish 
it  from  others.  A  western  type,  Rubus  leucodermis,  is 
closely  related,  so  closely  indeed  that  it  may  well  be  con- 
sidered as  only  a  geographical  variety  or  modification  of 
the  eastern  form,  though  now  classed  as  a  species  by 
botanists.  It  is  found  in  the  mountains  of  California  and 
adjoining  states.  It  is  distinguished  from  Rubus  occi- 
dentalis chiefly  by  the  color  of  the  fruit,  which  is  yellowish 
red  or  wine-colored,  by  the  coarser  toothed  leaflets  and 
the  stouter  and  more  hooked  prickles. 

The  Ohio  Everbearing  appears  to  have  been  the  first 


Black  Raspberries  149 

named  variety  of  black-cap  introduced  into  cultivation. 
It  was  found  in  the  state  of  Ohio,  and  introduced  to  public 
notice  by  Nicholas  Longworth,  of  Cincinnati,  who  began 
its  culture  in  1832.  Next  came  the  American  Black,  also 
named  Joslyn's  Black-cap,  Joslyn's  Improved,  Joslyn's 
Improved  Black-cap,  American  Improved,  etc.,  but 
which  finally  came  to  be  known  the  country  over  as  Doo- 
little.  This  was  found  growing  wild  by  Leander  Joslyn, 
of  Phelps,  Ontario  County,  New  York,  and  introduced  by 
H.  H.  Doolittle,  of  Oaks  Corners,  about  1850.  It  is  said 
to  have  owed  its  especial  prominence  and  value  to  the 
method  by  which  it  was  propagated,  only  the  tips  from 
one-year-old  plants  being  used.  This  variety  did  much  to 
spread  the  cultivation  of  black-caps  throughout  the  coun- 
try, and  the  impetus  then  gained  has  steadily  increased, 
until  the  fruit  has  become  one  of  the  most  important. 
The  development  of  the  evaporating  industry  has  done 
much  to  increase  the  extent  of  its  cultivation. 

Formerly  it  was  one  of  the  most  easily  grown  and  most 
uniformly  successful  fruits  in  cultivation,  but  in  some 
localities  the  industry  has  been  seriously  threatened  by 
the  spread  of  fungous  diseases,  notably  the  anthracnose. 
We  are  now  learning  better  how  to  control  this  malady 
so  that  the  industry  is  not  likely  to  be  crippled. 

Since  the  black-cap  is  the  youngest  member  of  the  rasp- 
berry family,  there  is  reason,  to  hope  for  much  progress 
in  its  development.  Marked  improvement  is  to  be  seen 
in  the  best  varieties  of  the  present  day  over  the  wild  plants 
of  the  woods,  or  those  first  introduced.  This  improvement 
seems  to  be  going  on  rapidly,  and  there  is  no  reason  why 
it  should  not  continue.  We  want  not  only  better  size  and 


150  Bush-Fruits 

better  quality  than  we  now  have,  but  we  want  equally 
reliable  varieties  which  will  ripen  both  early  and  late. 

Varieties  of  Black  Raspberries 

Ada. — A  chance  seedling  which  originated  with  Henry  Young, 
of  Ada,  Ohio,  about  1882  or  1883.  Thought  by  him  to  be  a  cross 
between  Doolittle  and  Mammoth  Cluster.  Comparatively  free  from 
thorns.  Fruit  large,  jet  black,  and  of  good  quality.  Blooms  late. 
Season  with  Gregg. 

Ak-Sar-Ben. — A  seedling  discovered  by  Ex-Gov.  Robert  W. 
Furnas,  of  Brownville,  Nebraska.  Hardy,  large,  of  good  color  and 
fair  quality. 

Alden. — A  name  proposed  for  the  Ohio,  to  better  distinguish  it 
from  the  Ohio  Everbearing,  but  never  adopted. — Mich.  Exp.  Sta., 
Bull.  Ill  :  256. 

American  Black  (Common  Black-cap,  Black  Raspberry,  Thimble- 
berry,  Rubus  occidentalis). — This  is  the  common  black  raspberry  of 
the  eastern  United  States.  It  was  described  by  Downing  as  fol- 
lows: "This  raspberry,  common  in  almost  every  field,  with  large 
rambling  purple  shoots,  and  flattened,  small,  black  berries,  is  every- 
where known.  It  is  frequently  cultivated  in  gardens,  where,  if  kept 
well  pruned,  its  berry  is  much  larger  and  finer.  Its  rich,  acid  flavor 
renders  it  perhaps  the  finest  sort  for  kitchen  use,  tarts,  puddings,  etc. 
It  ripens  a  little  earlier  than  most  of  the  European  sorts." 

American  Everbearing. — Named  and  brought  to  notice  by  Mr. 
Hatfield,  of  Indiana.  Sent  out  by  the  Cleveland  Nursery  Company, 
of  Rio  Vista,  Va.,  as  an  everbearing  black-cap. 

American  White  (Yellow  Cap,  Golden  Cap,  White  Thimble- 
berry). — Similar  in  all  respects  to  the  black-cap,  but  with  yellow- 
ish fruit  and  canes.  It  is  found  wild  from  time  to  time,  and  has  often 
appeared  in  cultivation,  though  never  very  popular. 

Arctic. — Described  as  vigorous,  early,  not  very  large,  moderately 
firm,  juicy,  and  sweet. 

August  Black. — Produced  by  Thomas  Rivers,  England.  Ap- 
parently never  cultivated  much. 

Autumn  Black. — Another  variety  produced  by  Mr.  Rivers. 


Varieties  of  Black  Raspberries  151 

Babbit. — A  chance  seedling  found  near  College  Springs,  Iowa, 
about  1883. 

Babcock  Nos.  8,  5  and  9. — Sent  out  for  trial.  Geneva  (N.  Y.) 
Exp.  Station,  Bull.  91  : 201. 

Barnes.— Mentioned.    111.  Hort.  Soc.  Rept.,  1880  :  78. 

Beckner. — Originated  in  Tippecanoe  county,  Indiana,  about  1855. 

Beebe  (Beebe's  Golden,  Beebe's  Golden  Prolific). — Originated 
about  1886,  with  James  Beebe,  of  Cassadaga,  N.  Y.  Said  to  be 
productive,  but  not  different  from  the  common  yellow-cap. 

Belle.— Sent  to  The  Rural  New-Yorker  by  L.  C.  Carlow,  of 
Batavia,  111.  Very  early,  large,  but  lacking  in  flavor. — Mich.  Exp. 
Sta.  Bull.  Ill  :  260. 

Belmont. — Originated  by  John  Scobs,  of  Barnesville,  Ohio,  and 
introduced  in  1879. 

Black  Pearl. — Found  among  Kansas  in  1905  by  Herman  Krumrei, 
St.  Joseph,  Mo.  Introduced  in  1907.  Vigorous,  stocky,  upright, 
productive,  hardy.  Leaves  small;  fruit  early,  large,  regular,  not 
crumbly,  juicy,  somewhat  seedy,  but  of  good  quality.  (Plate  V.) 

Bluffton. — A  seedling  raised  at  Bluffton,  Mo. — Mo.  Hort.  Soc. 
Rept.,  1886  : 48. 

Bonanza. — Originated  with  W.  C.  Freeman,  North  Springfield, 
Mo.,  about  1888. — Mich.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  Ill  :  260. 

Bronze  Queen. — Origin,  Missouri.  Fruit  sweet,  of  good  quality, 
with  a  peculiar  bronze  color. — Mo.  Hort.  Soc.  Rept.,  1886  :  182. 

Burns. — A  seedling  produced  by  A.  M.  Burns  of  Manhattan,  Kans. 
Claimed  to  withstand  drought  and  heat  well. 

Carman. — Originated  by  A.  H.  Sherwood,  Southport,  Conn.,  and 
named  in  honor  of  E.  S.  Carman,  Editor  of  The  Rural  New-Yorker. 
Introduced  by  G.  H.  &  J.  H.  Hale.  An  early  variety. 

Carpenter  Seedling. — -A  seedling  originated  by  Charles  Carpenter, 
of  Kelley's  Island,  Ohio,  closely  resembling  Beebe's  Golden. 

Centennial. — Two  varieties  are  mentioned  under  this  name:  one 
found  by  George  Husman,  near  Hermann,  Mo.,  about  1860,  and  one 
found  by  Mr.  Grayhill,  near  Carthage.— Mo.  Hort.  Soc.  Rept., 
1884  : 296. 

Champion. — Found  in  Clark  county,  Ohio.  Sent  out  by  Frank 
Murphy,  of  Donnelsville. — Mich.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  Ill  :  263. 


152  Bush-Fruits 

Chapman. — Found  on  the  grounds  of  Mr.  Chapman,  near  Cin- 
cinnati, and  carried  to  Ross  county,  Ohio,  about  1864.  Thought 
to  be  the  same  as  Ohio. 

Chesterfield. — Found  wild  in  Chesterfield  county,  Va. — The  Rural 
New-Yorker,  1884  :  18. 

Coloma. — A  thornless  variety  sent  out  by  John  Wenslick,  Coloma, 
Mich. 

Conrath. — Discovered  near  Ann  Arbor,  Mich.,  in  1886  as  a  chance 
seedling  near  a  patch  of  Gregg,  by  C.  H.  Woodruff,  who  sold  the 
stock  to  Conrath  Bros.,  for  whom  it  was  named.  Early,  vigorous, 
productive,  large,  moderately  firm,  coal  black,  ripening  early,  with 
a  long  season. 

Corinth. — Mentioned,  Mass.  Hatch  Exp.  Station,  Bulletin  22. 

Cottier  Everbearing. — Originating  with  M.  T.  Thompson,  of  Rio 
Vista,  Va.  Recommended  for  its  autumn-fruiting  qualities. 

Crawford. — Mentioned,  Mass.  Hatch  Exp.  Station. — Bull.  21  :  11. 

Cream. — A  yellow-cap  mentioned  by  William  Parry  in  1870. 
Mich.  Exp.  Bull.  Ill  :  265. 

Cromwell  (Butler). — Originated  by  G.  S.  Butler,  of  Cromwell, 
Conn.  Introduced  by  G.  H.  &  J.  H.  Hale.  Resembles  Tyler. 

Cumberland. — Originated  by  David  Miller,  Camp  Hill,  Penn. 
Plant  stocky,  vigorous  and  productive:  fruit  large,  roundish-conical, 
firm  and  of  good  quality.  Late  and  lasts  through  a  long  season.  A 
good  variety. 

Daily  Bearing. — Originated  with  Mr.  Griggs,  of  Ohio,  from  seed 
of  the  Ohio  Everbearing.  Canes  nearly  thornless. 

Davis. — A  yellow-cap,  found  on  the  banks  of  the  New  River,  North 
Carolina,  some  years  ago,  by  an  old  lady  named  Davis. 

Davison  (Davison's  Thornless). — Said  to  have  originated  in  the 
garden  of  Mrs.  Mercy  Davison,  of  Gowanda,  N.  Y.  Sent  out  by 
Joseph  Clinton  sometime  prior  to  1866.  Probably  the  earliest 
variety  grown.  This,  together  with  the  sweetness  of  its  fruit  and 
its  freedom  from  thorns,  made  it  popular  in  the  home-garden. 

Diamond  (Black  Diamond). — A  late  variety,  vigorous  and  hardy; 
fruit  jet  black,  very  sweet. 

Doolittle  (Joslyn,  Joslyn's  Improved.  Joslyn's  Black-cap,  American 
Improved,  etc.). — This  was  the  first  variety  which  really  gave  prom- 


Varieties  of  Black  Raspberries  153 

inence  to  the  black  raspberry  as  a  commercial  fruit.  It  was  intro- 
duced by  H.  H.  Doolittle,  of  Oaks  Corners,  N.  Y.  Said  to  have  been 
found  wild  by  Leander  Joslyn,  of  Phelps,  Ontario  county,  N.  Y.  Mr. 
Doolittle  seems  to  have  taken  great  interest  in  selecting  and  improv- 
ing this  fruit.  The  starting  point  may  have  been  from  this  plant, 
found  by  Mr.  Joslyn,  or  it  may  have  been  from  wild  plants  in  general. 
What  gave  the  American  black-cap  especial  value  under  this  name 
was,  perhaps,  not  so  much  the  variety  itself,  as  the  improved  method 
of  propagation  adopted  by  Mr.  Doolittle,  in  which  only  the  tips 
from  one-year-old  plants  were  used.  Whether  his  stock  was  de- 
rived from  one  original  plant,  or  from  various  selected  sources, 
it  is  certain  that  the  Doolittle  raspberry  acquired  a  fixity  of  type 
which  made  it  long  the  standard  cultivated  black  raspberry. 

Doomore. — A  seedling  found  between  two  rows  of  Doolittle,  by 
Gustus  Swabley,  of  Tiffin,  Ohio,  in  1884. 

Dorchester. — Mentioned.    Guelph,  Ont.,  Exp.  Sta.,  Bull.  27. 

Duncan  (Kentucky  Prolific,  Kentucky  Mammoth,  Kentucky). — • 
Found  on  the  farm  of  Jack  Smith,  in  Jefferson  county,  Kentucky, 
by  a  man  named  Duncan.  Apparently  a  popular  variety  in  Ken- 
tucky. 

Earhart. — A  variety  of  Illinois  origin,  introduced  by  Hale  Brothers 
about  1886.  Glossy  black,  rather  small,  ripening  very  early.  Said 
to  produce  a  small  second  crop  in  September. 

Early  Cluster.— Mentioned.    Kept.  Mich.  Pom.  Soc.  1875:  197. 

Early  Prolific. — Mentioned  as  "early,  a  strong  grower,  nearly 
thornless,  hardy,  productive,  and  of  the  best  quality." — Missouri 
Hort.  Soc.  Kept.  1883:  79. 

Ebon  Beauty. — Found  by  F.  L.  Piers  in  a  piece  of  woodland  in 
Indiana,  in  1887. 

Ebony  (Farnsworth) . — Originated  as  a  chance  seedling,  about 
1885,  on  the  farm  of  W.  W.  Farnsworth,  of  Waterville,  Ohio. 

Edmunds. — On  trial  in  Michigan.    Fruit  irregular  and  crumbly. 

Egyptian. — An  early  variety. 

Elsie. — A  seedling  raised  by  Samuel  Miller,  of  Bluff  ton,  Mo. 
Large  and  excellent.  Said  to  be  nearly  identical  with  Surprise. 

Emperor. — Mentioned  in  the  Mich.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  Ill,  p.  273. 

Eureka. — Said  to  have  been  discovered  wild  on  the  farm  of  Jacob 


154  Bush-Fruits 

Smith,  in  Miami  county,  Ohio,  by  J.  C.  Kester,  of  New  Carlisle. 
Brought  to  notice  by  W.  N.  Scarff,  of  the  same  place.  Said  to  be 
equal  to  Gregg  in  size.  Nearly  as  early  as  Palmer.  Promising  for 
market. 

Everlasting --Described  in  The  Rural  New-Yorker  for  1882,  p.  669, 
as  an  autumn-fruiting  variety,  from  Lawrence  Co.,  Pa. 

Every  Day. — Commonly  thought  to  be  identical  with  the  Ohio 
Everbearing,  but  considered  by  Dr.  Warder  to  be  a  much  more 
continuous  bearer,  fruiting  almost  continuously  until  frost. 

Fadely. — Received  at  the  Pennsylvania  Experiment  Station  from 
Joshua  Fadely,  of  Sassafras,  Va.  Claimed  to  be  everbearing.  Pa. 
Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  32:  11. 

Fay  (Fay's  Thornless). — A  variety  similar  to  Davison. 

Ferndale. — A  chance  seedling  found  by  W.  B.  K.  Johnson,  Allen- 
town,  Pa.,  along  the  Delaware  River. 

Florence. — A  yellow  variety,  originating  in  New  Jersey.  Intro- 
duced about  1881.  Thought  at  the  time  to  have  been  one  of  the  best 
yellow  varieties. 

Gault. — Found  by  W.  C.  Gault,  of  Ruggles,  Ashland  county, 
Ohio,  growing  by  the  roadside  near  his  place,  in  1887,  and  intro- 
duced by  him  in  1893.  Described  as  medium  to  large,  dull  black, 
with  a  slight  bloom,  moderately  juicy,  and  a  good  shipper.  Season 
very  late.  Tends  to  produce  a  second  crop  in  autumn. 

General  Negley. — Mentioned  before  the  Ontario  Fruit  Growers' 
Society,  as  a  perpetual  bearing  black-cap.1  Under  this  name  Crozier 
quotes2  from  Dr.  J.  A.  Warder  as  follows:  "A  seedling,  probably 
from  one  of  the  large  foreign  varieties,  Pilot,  Hornet  or  Franconia, 
originated  by  General  Negley,  of  Pittsburg.  It  is  vigorous,  of  foreign 
aspect  and  foliage.  Stood  the  past  winter  well;  is  productive,  rather 
early.  Fruit  large,  roundish  oblong,  juicy,  high  flavor,  and  very  good." 

Gibraltar. — Originated  in  Ontario;  introduced  by  King  Brothers, 
Dansville,  N.  Y.  Thought  to  be  a  cross  between  Gregg  and  Hilborn. 
Claimed  to  be  unusually  hardy,  vigorous  and  healthy.  Fruit  re- 
sembles Gregg. 

!Gar.  Month,  12:278. 

2  Mich.  Exp.  Sta.,  Bull.  Ill:  277. 


Varieties  of  Black  Raspberries  155 

Golden-cap. — A  seedling  of  the  American  White-cap,  originating 
in  Cedar  county,  Iowa. 

Golden  Thornless. — Introduced  from  Minnesota,  by  Purdy  & 
Johnston,  of  Palmyra,  N.  Y.,  previous  to  1869. 

Gray. — Mentioned,  Kept.  Worcester  Hort.  Soc.,  1881:  24. 

Green. — Discovered  on  the  grounds  of  Green's  Nursery  Company, 
of  Rochester.  N.  Y.,  about  1890. 

Gregg  (Great  Western,  Hoosier  Mammoth,  Western  Triumph). — 
Found  growing  wild  in  a  ravine  on  the  Gregg  farm,  in  Ohio  county, 
Indiana,  in  1866.  Largely  introduced  by  N.  Ohmer,  of  Dayton, 
Ohio,  who  first  saw  the  fruit  on  exhibition  in  1875.  Canes  large, 
upright,  very  vigorous,  possessing  an  abundance  of  bloom  and  a 
peculiar  clean,  smooth  appearance.  More  difficult  to  propagate 
than  many  other  sorts,  owing  to  its  upright,  vigorous  habit.  Fruit 
large,  roundish  oblate,  with  a  very  decided  gray  bloom.  Flesh  very 
firm,  only  moderately  juicy  and  sweet.  Season  late.  One  of  the 
best  known  and  most  popular  late  varieties.  It  is  uniformly  healthy 
and  productive,  though  slightly  lacking  in  hardiness,  especially  on 
heavy  soils.  The  plant  is  slower  to  develop  than  most  other  varieties, 
but  is  also  slower  to  decline,  remaining  longer  in  profitable  condition. 
Though  not  of  the  highest  quality,  it  is  a  good  berry,  and  its  excellent 
shipping  qualities  render  it  especially  adapted  to  market.  It  is  also 
an  excellent  variety  for  evaporating,  especially  where  fruit  is  picked 
by  hand.  It  clings  so  tightly  that  it  is  not  easily  gathered  with  the 
berry  harvester. 

Hale  Early. —Sent  out  for  trial  by  G.  H.  &  J.  H.  Hale,  of  South 
Glastonbury,  Conn.,  but  never  introduced. 

Hamilton—  Mentioned  by  Downing  as  from  Shelby  Co.,  Tenn. 

Hannibal  (Extra  Late). — Described  as  a  large,  fine  berry  of  ex- 
cellent quality.  Apparently  vigorous  and  productive,  being  several 
days  later  than  Gregg.  Originated  with  W.  J.  Bradt,  of  North 
Hannibal,  N.  Y.  Kept.  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.,  1892. 

Harrison. — Named  in  honor  of  President  Harrison  by  Henry  S. 
Harris,  of  White  Lane,  Salem  county,  N.  J.,  who  found  it  in  a  neigh- 
bor's garden  many  years  ago. 

Haskell  Yellow. — Taken  from  Massachusetts  to  Illinois  by  Dr. 
Haskell,  about  1836.— Mich.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  Ill:  281. 


156  Bush-Fruits 

Hawkeye, — A  berry  found  in  Iowa,  which  is  thought  to  have  come 
originally  from  Indiana.  Said  to  be  better  than  Doolittle,  as  firm 
as  Gregg,  and  as  large,  but  earlier. — Iowa  Hort.  Soc.  Rept.  1884:  535. 

Hayne. — Brought  to  notice  by  H.  Hayne  of  Delphi,  Indiana. 

Hilborn. — A  seedling  found  in  an  old  raspberry  plantation,  and 
introduced  by  W.  W.  Hilborn,  of  Leamington,  Ont.,  in  1886.  De- 
scribed as  sturdy,  very  hardy,  and  productive.  Fruit  nearly  as  large 
as  Gregg,  clear,  glossy  black,  rich  and  juicy.  A  favorite  variety  in 
many  parts  of  Ohio  and  Ontario. 

Hixon  (Hixon's  Everbearer). — Appears  to  have  attained  some 
prominence  in  Kansas.  Rept.  Kan.  Hort.  Soc.,  1886,  p.  290. 

Hoag  (Harkness). — 'Originated  with  Charles  R.  Hoag,  at  Kasson, 
Dodge  county,  Minnesota.  Later  it  was  disseminated  by  J.  W. 
Harkness.  Said  to  resemble  Gregg,  but  to  have  been  more  hardy 
in  Minnesota. 

Hoosier. — A  midseason  variety,  hardy  and  prolific. 

Hopkins. — Found  wild  in  the  woods,  within  the  present  limits  of 
Kansas  City,  Mo.,  in  the  year  1872.  Later  brought  to  notice  by 
G.  W.  Hopkins,  of  Springfield,  Mo.,  and  introduced  by  Frank 
Holsinger,  of  Rosedale,  Kans.  Similar  to  Tyler.  Considered  val- 
uable in  the  region  where  it  originated. 

Idaho. — Mentioned  by  Crozier,1  as  possibly  a  variety  of  Rubus 
leucodermis.  Said  to  have  come  from  the  mountains  near  Lewiston, 
Idaho.  It  was  sent  out  for  trial  by  F.  R.  Palmer,  of  Mansfield,  Ohio, 
but  did  not  prove  valuable. 

Ideal. — A  seedling  found  near  a  Gregg  plantation,  in  1890,  by 
C.  P.  Augur,  of  Connecticut,  who  described  it  as  nearly  as  good  as 
the  Souhegan,  and  larger  and  better  in  every  way  than  the  Gregg. — 
The  Rural  New-Yorker.  1893:  430. 

Indiana. — A  black-cap  from  Indiana,  introduced  in  1884. 

Ironclad  (Smith's  Ironclad). — A  variety  of  this  name  seems  to 
have  originated  at  Forest,  Ohio,  about  1885.  Under  the  name 
"Smith's  Ironclad,"  Crozier  records  a  variety,2  brought  to  notice  in 
Kansas  by  a  man  named  Smith,  some  years  ago,  he  having  found  a 

1  Mich.  Exp.  Sta.,  Bull.  Ill:  284. 

2  Mich.  Exp.  Sta.,  Bull.  Ill:  309. 


Varieties  of  Black  Raspberries  157 

single  raspberry  plant  among  a  bill  of  trees  ordered  from  an  agent. 
Probably  an  old  variety,  but  known  in  Kansas  under  the  names 
mentioned. 

Kagy  Everbearing. — Mentioned.  Ohio  Expt.  Sta.  Kept.,  1886, 
p.  190. 

Kansas. — Originated  as  a  chance  seedling  on  the  farm  of  A.  H. 
Griesa,  Lawrence,  Kans.,  in  1884.  Although  he  had  growing,  at 
the  same  time,  several  hundred  other  seedlings  from  selected  stock, 
this  proved  more  valuable  than  any  of  the  others.  Vigorous,  hardy, 
exceedingly  thorny,  rooting  very  readily  at  the  tips.  Fruit  large, 
ripening  a  week  earlier  than  Gregg,  with  less  bloom,  juicy,  fairly 
firm,  and  of  excellent  flavor.  A  prominent  commercial  variety. 

Kellogg. — A  chance  seedling  found  by  George  J.  Kellogg,  of  Wis- 
consin, about  1875.  Similar  to  Doolittle. 

Kerr  White. — Large,  of  moderate  vigor  and  productiveness,  with 
light  yellow,  pubescent  fruit. 

Key  Prolific  (Johnston's  Sweet). — A  black-cap  found  in  the  Ozark 
Mountains,  Ark.  Grown  in  Iowa  since  about  1881.  Fruit  small, 
very  sweet,  and  excellent  for  drying.  Reintroduced  by  Robert 
Johnston,  of  Shortsville,  N.  Y.,  in  1886,  as  Johnston's  Sweet. — la. 
Hort.  Soc.  1887:  98. 

Kimball. — Found  growing  wild  on  the  farm  of  James  Kimball, 
near  Providence,  Rhode  Island,  in  1885.  Never  introduced. — Mich. 
Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  111:287. 

King  of  Cliffs. — Introduced  by  Bradley  Brothers  of  Illinois  as  an 
everbearing  black-cap.  Found  in  1905  around  a  cliff  of  rocks  near 
a  field  of  Cumberland  and  Conrath  and  thought  to  be  a  cross  between 
them.  Said  to  begin  ripening  with  Gandy  strawberries  and  to  con- 
tinue to  bear  fruit  until  November.  Plant  hardy,  resembling 
Cumberland;  fruit  firm,  jet  black,  of  good  flavor. 

Lawrence. — Originated  by  A.  H.  Griesa,  Lawrence,  Kans.  Plants 
vigorous,  usually  hardy,  productive.  Fruit  large,  fairly  firm,  at- 
tractive black,  fair  to  good.  Has  many  points  to  commend  it  for 
trial  as  a  commercial  berry;  lacks  slightly  in  quality. 

Lindsey. — A  variety  said  to  have  originated  in  Michigan. — la. 
Hort.  Soc.  Rept.,  1882:  478. 

Little  (Little's  Black-Cap).    Originated  with  John  Little,  of  On- 


158  Bush-Fruits 

tario.  Sent  to  T.  T.  Lyon,  of  Michigan,  in  1881.  Much  like  Davi- 
son's  Thornless.—  Mich.  Hort.  Soc.  Kept.,  1882:  169. 

Livingston. — Vigorous,  productive,  of  medium  size  and  fair 
quality. 

Lotta  (Brackett's  No.  101).  Originated  on  the  farm  of  G.  C. 
Brackett,  of  Lawrence,  Kans.  A  hardy  and  productive  variety. 
Fruit  large,  round,  black,  with  slight  bloom;  quality  good;  as  large 
as  Gregg  and  somewhat  earlier.  A  valuable  variety,  but  susceptible 
to  rust  and  anthracnose. 

Lovett. — Found  among  a  lot  of  wild  seedlings  on  the  grounds  of 
Ezra  Wood,  of  Ohio.  Introduced  by  J.  T.  Lovett  Co.,  of  New  Jersey. 
Said  to  be  vigorous,  productive,  and  to  ripen  early.  Fruit  firm, 
black,  resembling  Tyler;  apparently  thornless. 

Lum  Everbearing  (Autumn  Black  Raspberry,  Lum's  Fall  Bear- 
ing).—Raised  by  H.  B.  Lum,  of  Sandusky,  Ohio.  Much  like  the 
Ohio  Everbearing,  of  which  it  is  a  seedling. 

Lum  Yellow  Canada. — An  everbearing  variety.  Mich.  Exp.  Sta. 
Bull.  111:289. 

Macomber. — This  name,  with  numbers  or  letters  appended,  has 
been  applied  to  various  seedlings  sent  out  on  trial  by  J.  T.  Macomber 
and  L.  M.  Macomber,  of  Vermont,  though  apparently  not  retained 
as  a  permanent  name  of  any  variety. — Mich.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  Ill: 
289. 

Manwaring  No.  1. — Sent  out  by  C.  H.  Manwaring,  of  Kansas. 

May  King. — Similar  to  Souhegan. 

McCracken. — Originated  by  William  McCracken,  of  Sunnydale, 
Kans.,  and  distributed  under  the  name  Kansas,  though  not  the 
same  as  the  better-known  variety  of  that  name. 

McCormick  (Mammoth  Cluster,  Miami  Black-cap,  Collinsville 
Miami,  etc.). — For  many  years  the  leading  black-cap  in  cultivation. 
It  appears  to  have  originated  in  Indiana,  from  the  Old  or  Small 
Miami.  A  thoroughly  hardy  and  very  productive  variety;  a  vig- 
orous grower,  bearing  fruit  of  medium  size,  but  of  a  slightly  reddish 
black  color.  Quality  good;  season  medium. 

Miami  (Miami  Black,  Old  Miami,  Small  Miami). — A  common 
black-cap,  originally  found  growing  along  the  Miami  River,  in  Ohio. 
A  vigorous,  productive  variety,  of  less  value  than  the  McCormick, 


Varieties  of  Black  Raspberries  159 

more  brownish  red,  not  quite  as  sweet  nor  quite  as  late  in  ripening. — 
Downing. 

Midwest. — Originated  by  G.  W.  Alexander,  Peru,  Nebr.  A  cross 
between  Cumberland  and  Cardinal.  Introduced  by  J.  R.  Duncan 
&  Co.,  Peru,  Nebr.  Bushes  vigorous,  productive,  usually  hardy. 
Fruit  matures  about  with  Cumberland;  berries  large,  attractive 
black,  roundish-conic,  very  firm,  sweet,  good. 

Miller  Daily  (Miller's  Daily  Bearing). — Apparently  a  local  variety 
near  Dunreith,  Ind.  A  large,  everbearing  black-cap. 

Mills  (Mills  No.  15). — Introduced  by  Charles  Mills,  of  Fairmount, 
N.  Y.  Raised  from  seed  of  the  Gregg  said  to  have  been  fertilized 
by  Tyler.  A  strong,  healthy,  upright  grower,  moderately  productive. 
Fruit  of  medium  size  and  excellent  flavor. 

Mills  No.  1. — Of  the  same  parentage  as  the  preceding.  Described 
as  vigorous,  fairly  hardy.  Fruit  large,  firm,  seedy,  moderately  juicy, 
good  quality. 

Minnesota  (Minnesotian) . — A  western  yellow-cap,  mentioned  in 
various  places. 

Mohler. — Originated  by  D.  H.  Mohler,  New  Paris,  Ohio,  from 
seed  of  the  Eureka.  Canes  large,  vigorous,  very  productive.  Fruit 
very  large,  firm,  good,  black,  early.  The  name  "Mohler"  seems  to 
have  been  applied  to  the  Eureka  at  one  time,  before  the  introduction 
of  this  variety.  Ohio  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  63. 

Moody. — A  white  variety  mentioned  by  Samuel  Miller,  in  the 
Missouri  Horticultural  Society  Report  for  1884,  p.  295. 

Moore  Seedling. — Mentioned.    Ohio  Hort.  Soc.  Rept.  1870,  p.  62. 

Hunger. — Originated  with  Timothy  Munger  in  western  Ohio, 
about  1890.  Introduced  by  W.  N.  Scarff.  Described  as  a  good 
shipper,  black,  of  good  flavor,  large  size  and  very  productive. 

Munson's  Everbearing. — Reported  the  most  reliable  variety  in 
Nebraska,  but  poor  and  small. 

Mystery. — Sent  out  from  Kentucky  as  an  everbearing  sort.  Re- 
ported as  of  little  value,  bearing  no  autumn  crop  in  Minnesota. — 
BuU.  25. 

Nemaha. — Found  growing  wild  by  Ex-Gov.  Furnas,  of  Brown- 
ville,  Nebr.,  along  the  bluffs  of  the  Missouri  River  in  Nemaha  county, 
of  that  state.  Introduced  by  Green's  Nursery  Company,  about 


160  Bush-Fruits 

1883.  Very  similar  to  the  Gregg,  but  hardier.  Vigorous  and  pro- 
ductive. Fruit  large,  of  good  quality,  and  firm.  Popular  in  south- 
eastern Nebraska. 

New  Haven. — A  chance  seedling  which  came  up  on  the  grounds 
of  E.  E.  Clark,  of  New  Haven,  Conn.,  proving  better  than  any 
seedlings  he  had  raised.  Rept.  Conn.  Board  of  Agr.  1866:  184. 

Norfolk. — Mentioned  as  unsatisfactory. — Mich.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull. 
122. 

Northfield—Seut  out  for  trial  by  M.  T.  Thompson,  of  Rio  Vista, 
Va.,  but  never  introduced. — Mich.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  Ill:  294. 

Ohio  (Alden). — The  great  evaporating  raspberry,  having  been 
more  largely  planted  for  that  purpose  than  all  others  together.  The 
full  history  of  this  variety  is  recorded  by  Bailey  in  Bulletin  117, 
Cornell  University  Exp.  Station,  p.  362.  Somewhere  in  the  sixties, 
Hiram  Van  Dusen,  of  Palmyra,  N.  Y.,  bought  a  lot  of  Doolittle 
plants  of  A.  M.  Purdy,  of  that  place.  When  the  plantation  began  to 
fail,  he  found  one  plant  apparently  as  good  as  new,  which,  from 
previous  observation,  he  knew  to  be  firmer,  more  productive,  and 
to  ripen  later.  The  Doolittle  plants  mentioned,  it  was  found,  came 
from  Ohio,  and  Mr.  Van  Dusen  called  this  the  "Ohio"  to  distinguish 
it  from  the  Doolittle.  It  was  introduced  by  a  son  and  grandson  of 
Mr.  Van  Dusen.  A.  M.  Purdy  was  of  the  opinion  that  this  was 
precisely  identical  with  what  he  grew  at  that  time  as  the  Miami, 
obtained  from  Ohio,  and  states  that  it  was  so  decided  by  John  J. 
Thomas  and  Patrick  Barry,  who  saw  them  growing  on  his  grounds. 
This,  like  many  market  fruits,  though  hardy  and  productive,  is  not 
of  good  quality.  It  is  one  of  the  most  seedy  varieties  grown,  and 
it  is  partially  for  this  reason,  no  doubt,  that  it  yields  more  pounds 
of  evaporated  fruit  per  bushel  than  other  sorts. 

Ohio  Everbearing  (Monthly  Black-cap). — A  full  account  of  the 
history  of  this  variety  is  also  given  by  Bailey  in  Bulletin  117  of  the 
Cornell  University  Experiment  Station.  (See  also  page  148.)  The 
taking  up  of  this  variety  by  Nicholas  Longworth  appears  to  have 
been  the  beginning  of  the  cultivation  of  the  black  raspberry  in 
America.  It  is  of  especial  interest  on  this  account,  although  not 
a  variety  of  great  value.  Its  chief  feature  seems  to  have  been  its 
autumn  bearing  habit. 


Varieties  of  Black  Raspberries  161 

Older. — Found  in  the  garden  of  Mr.  Older,  of  Independence,  la., 
in  1872.  It  was  named  in  honor  of  Mr.  Older,  after  his  death,  by 
Mr.  Burser,  of  Warren,  111.,  and  introduced  by  L.  K.  Ballard,  of  the 
same  place.  Hardy,  strong,  vigorous,  enduring  drought  well.  Fruit 
large,  nearly  destitute  of  bloom,  black  and  firm,  of  good  quality. 
Popular  in  the  West. 

Onondaga  (Mills  No.  7). — A  seedling  raised  in  1884  by  Charles 
Mills,  of  Fairmount,  N.  Y.,  from  seed  of  the  Gregg  growing  near 
Tyler.  Vigorous,  productive,  very  large,  firm,  jet  black,  ripening 
with  Gregg  or  a  little  earlier. 

Ontario. — Found  on  the  grounds  of  E.  E.  Lord,  of  Fairport,  N.  Y., 
in  1886,  and  introduced  by  him  in  1872.  Fruit  large,  firm,  sweet  and 
rich,  earlier  than  Doolittle. 

Oregon. — Said  to  be  a  native  variety  of  especial  value  in  the  state 
for  which  it  is  named.  Not  as  dry  as  other  black-caps,  and  larger 
than  Gregg.  Referred  to  Rubus  leucodermis. — Mich.  Exp.  Sta. 
Bull.  111:297. 

Ozark. — A  seedling  brought  to  notice  by  Mr.  Holman,  of  Missouri. 
Somewhat  like  Gregg,— Mo.  Hort.  Soc.  Kept.  1886:  182. 

Palmer  (Palmer's  No.  1,  Acme). — Originated  by  F.  R.  Palmer, 
of  Mansfield,  Ohio.  Introduced  in  the  fall  of  1888.  Similar  to 
Tyler,  and  ripening  with  it.  Hardy,  early,  large,  of  good  quality 
and  productive.  It  has  been  largely  grown,  especialty  in  the 
West. 

Pioneer  (Progress). — Originated  on  the  farm  of  Jacob  Muhl,  of 
Hammonton,  N.  J.  Apparently  grown  by  him  for  some  time  be- 
fore being  introduced  by  the  J.  T.  Lovett  Co.,  who  offered  it  under 
the  name  "Progress."  Much  like  Souhegan,  but  claimed  to  be 
later,  more  vigorous  and  productive. 

Plum  Farmer. — Found  by  L.  J.  Farmer,  Pulaski,  N.  Y.,  in  a  ship- 
ment of  another  variety  from  Ohio.  Introduced  in  1895.  Vigorous, 
upright,  dense,  hardy,  very  productive  and  healthy.  Fruit  early, 
ripening  a  week  or  more  before  Gregg,  easily  picked,  a  good  shipper 
and  one  of  the  best  to  withstand  drought.  Berries  large,  very  black 
but  not  glossy,  firm,  uniform,  juicy  and  of  good  quality.  One  of  the 
most  satisfactory  present-day  varieties.  (Plate  II.) 

Poscharsky. — Different  numbers  under  this  name  have  been  sent 


162  Bush-Fruits 

out  by  Poscharsky  &  Son  of  Princeton,  111.  No.  7,  strong,  productive, 
with  fruit  resembling  Gregg,  but  of  better  quality,  is  promising. 

Pride  of  Ohio. — Hardy,  vigorous,  solid  black,  firm. 

Pride  of  the  Market. — The  name  appeared  in  L.  L.  May  &  Go's 
catalogue. 

Pride  of  the  West. — Said  to  be  fairly  productive  and  vigorous, 
large,  grayish  black,  of  fair  quality,  ripening  with  Gregg. 

Queen  of  the  West. — A  Kansas  seedling,  ripening  a  few  days  earlier 
than  Souhegan,  but  larger  and  more  productive. — Mich.  Exp.  Sta. 
Bull.  Ill:  302. 

Rachel. — A  chance  seedling  found  in  1$91  by  Rachel  D.  Mitchell, 
Geneva,  N.  Y. ;  not  introduced.  Plants  usually  hardy,  very  vigorous, 
productive,  almost  immune  to  anthracnose.  Foliage  very  healthy, 
dark  green.  Fruit  matures  very  late;  berries  large,  attractive,  black 
when  fully  ripe,  very  firm,  with  abundant  bloom,  mild,  sweet,  good 
in  quality. 

Ransom  Everbearing. — Sent  out  by  Stark  Bros.,  of  Louisiana,  Mo., 
in  1890.— Mich.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  Ill:  303. 

Rex.— A  seedling  of  the  Gregg  raised  by  John  W.  Perry  of  Coving- 
ton,  Ohio,  in  1884  or  1885.— Mich.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  Ill:  305. 

Reyes. — "The  sweetest  black-cap  I  have  ever  tasted." — P.  C. 
Reynolds,  Mich.  Hort.  Soc.  Rept.,  1886:  63. 

Rocky  Mountain  Cluster. — Mentioned.  Mo.  Hort.  Soc.  Rept. 
1897,  p.  27. 

Rundell. — A  yellow-cap  closely  resembling  Beebe's  Golden. 
Found  by  Charles  Rundell,  of  New  Buffalo,  Mich. — Mich.  Exp. 
Sta.  Bull.  11:306. 

Saunders  No.  60. — A  seedling  of  Gregg,  produced  by  Professor 
William  Saunders,  of  London,  Ont.  Mich.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  Ill:  307. 

Savanna. — A  variety  obtained  from  the  woods  in  Oklahoma, 
near  Savanna,  and  so  named  by  T.  V.  Munson,  of  Denison,  Texas. 
Earlier  than  Tyler,  prolific,  very  sweet,  enduring  extremes  of  climate 
well .— Mich.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  Ill  :  307. 

Scarff . — Introduced  by  W.  N.  Scarff,  New  Carlisle,  Ohio.  Sup- 
posed to  be  a  seedling  of  Gregg.  Hardy,  very  productive,  vigorous, 
healthy,  upright.  Fruit  about  the  size  of  Cumberland. 

Seneca. — Raised  by  Mr.   Dell,   of  Seneca  county,   N.   Y.,   and 


Varieties  of  Black  Raspberries  163 

brought  to  notice  by  Doolittle  &  Wright,  of  Waterloo,  N.  Y.,  in 
1867.  A  large  late  variety,  very  vigorous  and  productive.  Fruit 
large,  somewhat  reddish,  with  a  light  bloom. 

Sinton  Thornless. — 'Recorded  by  Fuller,  in  1867,  as  similar  to 
Doolittle,  but  a  week  earlier. — Mich.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  Ill  :  309. 

Smith  Giant. — Apparently  a  seedling  of  the  Gregg,  produced  by 
A.  M.  Smith,  of  St.  Catharines,  Ont.,  who  reported  it  hardier  than 
that  variety. 

Smith  No.  1. — A  chance  seedling  sent  to  the  Geneva,  N.  Y., 
Experiment  Station  which  gave  a  high  percentage  of  promising 
seedlings  in  breeding  work. 

Smith  No.  2. — Sent  to  the  Geneva  (N.  Y.)  Experiment  Station, 
by  B.  F.  Smith,  of  Lawrence,  Kans.,  who  found  it  growing  under 
an  apple  tree. 

Smith  Prolific. — A  chance  seedling  found  in  a  strawberry  patch 
on  the  grounds  of  N.  G.  Smith,  of  Manchester,  N.  Y. 

Souhegan  (Skowhegan). — Originated  in  the  valley  of  the  Souhe- 
gan  River,  New  Hampshire,  about  1870,  from  seed  of  the  Doolittle, 
by  J.  A.  Carlton.  Introduced  by  G.  H.  &  J.  H.  Hale  in  1881.  One 
of  the  standard  early  varieties,  widely  known  and  generally  prized. 
Canes  hardy,  vigorous,  and  productive.  Berries  medium  to  large, 
jet  black,  without  bloom,  of  good  quality. 

Spanish  Black. — Grown  and  sold  by  Henry  Geisler,  of  Watervliet, 
Mich.  It  is  reported  to  be  the  Gregg  re-named. — Mich.  Exp.  Sta. 
Bull.  Ill  :  311. 

Spray  Early. — A  chance  seedling  brought  into  cultivation  at  Fort 
Atkinson,  Wis.,  about  1884. 

Springfield. — A  chance  seedling,  found  about  1880  on  the  grounds 
of  J.  W.  Adams,  of  Springfield,  Mass.  Described  as  thornless,  very 
early,  prolific,  of  good  quality  and  perfectly  hardy.  Somewhat 
resembles  Davison. 

Stahelin. — From  F.  J.  Stahelin,  Bridgeman,  Mich.  Unpromising 
at  the  Mich.  Exp.  Station. 

Stone  Fort. — Received  at  the  New  York  Agricultural  Experiment 
Station,  Geneva,  N.  Y.,  in  1909,  from  J.  T.  Lovett,  Little  Silver, 
New  Jersey.  Bushes  vigorous  when  not  attacked  by  anthracnose 
to  which  it  is  susceptible,  usually  productive,  not  always  hardy; 


164  Bush-Fruits 

fruit  matures  in  mid-season;  berries  variable  in  size,  firm,  heavily 
pubescent,  good  black,  not  as  sweet  or  as  high  in  quality  as  Kansas 
or  Plum  Farmer. 

Success  (Waters'  Success). — Sent  out  for  trial  in  1893,  by  James  N. 
Waters,  Fernhill,  Ont.  Very  promising  on  the  grounds  of  The  Rural 
New-Yorker.— Mich.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  Ill  :  318. 

Summit. — A  yellow  variety  from  Summit  township,  Crawford 
county,  Pa.  It  was  thought  to  have  originated  from  seed  found  in 
soil  excavated  at  a  depth  of  ten  feet.  The  original  plant  was  found 
and  transplanted  by  Daniel  Supher,  but  was  brought  to  notice  by 
A.  T.  Hobbs,  of  Randolph,  Pa. 

Surprise. — Found  wild,  and  introduced  to  notice  by  Charles  Hus- 
mann,  of  Bluffton,  Mo.,  about  1865.  Large,  more  conical  and 
darker  than  the  common  black-cap. — Downing. 

Surrey. — Introduced  by  the  Cleveland  Nursery  Co.  of  Rio  Vista, 
Va.— Mich.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  Ill  :  313. 

Sweet  Home. — A  seedling  of  Lum's  Everbearing,  from  Illinois. 
Introduced  about  1880.  Similar  to  McCormick. 

Thomas  (Thomas'  Seedling). — Originated  by  Mr.  Thomas,  of 
Marion,  Ind. 

Thompson  Sweet. — Mentioned  in  Bulletins  of  the  Mass.  Hatch 
Experiment  Station. 

Townsend  No.  2. — Mentioned  as  on  test  at  the  Geneva  (N.  Y.) 
Experiment  Station. 

Tyler. — An  accidental  seedling,  found  growing  among  McCormick 
and  Seneca  plants  on  the  grounds  of  Nathan  Tyler,  of  Auburn,  N.  Y. 
Five  hundred  plants  were  sold  to  Robert  Johnston,  of  Shortsville, 
N.  Y.,  who  introduced  it  under  the  name  Tyler.  An  excellent  early 
variety,  of  good  size  and  quality,  jet  black,  hardy  and  productive. 
It  resembles  Souhegan  very  closely,  although  of  entirely  different 
origin.  It  has  been  thought  to  withstand  spring  frosts  better  than 
Souhegan.  After  the  Doolittle  passed  the  zenith  of  its  popularity, 
these  two  varieties  long  stood  as  the  representative  berries. 

Virginia. — A  variety  introduced  by  the  Cleveland  Nursery  Co.,  of 
Rio  Vista,  Va.  Said  to  be  large,  jet  black,  round,  conical,  moderately 
firm,  of  excellent  quality,  holding  out  well  at  the  end  of  the  season. — • 
Mich.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  Ill  :  317. 


The  Red  and  Hybrid  Raspberries  165 

Wade. — Found  by  John  Wade,  of  Veedersburg,  Ind.,  in  the 
Spring  of  1884,  under  a  grape  trellis  where  birds  had  dropped  the 
seed.  Described  by  him  as  an  ironclad  variety,  wonderfully  pro- 
ductive. Fruit  showy  black,  firm,  of  superior  quality,  ripening  about 
with  Souhegan. 

Westchester. — A  chance  seedling,  found  in  1861  in  the  garden. of 
Levi  J.  Mabie,  of  Tarrytown,  Westchester  county,  N.  Y. — Mich. 
Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  Ill  :318. 

Winfield. — A  midseason  variety. 

Winona. — An  Ohio  variety,  introduced  in  1890. 

Wonder. — An  everbearing  variety,  originating  with  J.  H.  Robbins, 
of  Arcadia,  Ind.— Mich.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  Ill  :  319. 

Woodside. — Originated  in  New  York,  from  seed  sown  in  a  garden. 
Produces  a  second  crop  in  autumn. — Fuller. 

Wragg. — An  Ohio  variety  on  trial  in  Michigan. 

Yellow  Pearl. — A  yellow-cap  variety  often  producing  a  fall  crop. — 
Downing. 

Yosemite. — A  rampant  grower,  and  very  thorny;  berries  large  and 
of  poor  quality.— Cal.  Hort.  Kept.  1885:  233.  Perhaps  of  Rubus 
leucodermis  parentage. 

Recommended  varieties  of  black-caps. — Kansas  and  Plum 
Farmer  (Plate  II)  are  perhaps  the  two  most  popular  black- 
caps at  the  present  day,  having  largely  replaced  such 
varieties  as  Tyler  and  Palmer.  Gregg  is  still  the  standard 
late  berry,  though  the  Nemaha  is  preferred  in  places, 
while  Ohio  is  the  great  berry  for  evaporating  purposes. 
Other  varieties  well  and  favorably  known  are  Cumberland, 
Lotta  and  Older. 


THE   RED   AND   HYBRID   RASPBERRIES 

Two  species  are  included  in  the  true  red  raspberries  of 
cultivation, — the  European  red  raspberry,  Rubus  Idceus, 
Fig.  20,  and  the  American  red,  Rubus  strigosus,  Fig.  21. 


166 


Bush-Fruits 


Fig.  20.  Rubus  Idceus 


Though  similar  in  general  appearance  and  in  their  botan- 
ical characters,  there  are  essential  points  of  difference. 
Botanically,  it  may  be  said,  that  the  European  plant  is 
rather  stouter  and  less  free  in  its  habit  of  growth,  the 
leaves  are  a  little  whiter  beneath,  thicker,  and  generally 


The  Red  and  Hybrid  Raspberries  167 

somewhat  wrinkled,  and  the  canes  are  light  colored,  bear- 
ing purple  prickles  in  some  varieties.    The  prickles  on  the 
finer  parts  are  firmer,  recurved  and  less  numerous. 
The  horticultural  differences  are  more  marked  than 


Fig.  21.  Rubus  strigosus 

the  botanical  differences,  the  chief  one  being  the  habit  of 
the  European  raspberry  to  continue  bearing  more  or  less 
throughout  the  greater  part  of  the  season  after  ripening 
begins.  This  feature,  while  it  may  be  desirable  in  a  home 
berry,  is  objectionable  in  a  market  berry.  Another  im- 


168  Bush-Fruits 

portant  point  of  difference  between  the  two  species  is  in 
hardiness.  Few,  if  any  of  the  European  varieties  can  be 
depended  upon  to  endure  our  winters  without  protection, 
except  in  the  most  favorable  localities,  and  even  then 
they  are  unreliable.  It  is  also  probable  that  our  hot,  dry 
summers  are  an  unfavorable  factor  as  well  as  the  cold  of 
winter.  No  better  evidence  of  their  lack  of  adaptability 
to  our  climate  is  needed  than  the  fact  that  while  there 
have  been  something  like  one  hundred  varieties  belonging 
to  this  species  introduced  in  the  United  States,  probably 
not  over  five  or  six  are  grown  at  all  at  the  present  time, 
and  these  only  in  a  very  small  way.  The  fruit  is  generally 
conceded  to  be  of  better  quality  than  our  American  reds, 
and  if  the  plants  had  proved  satisfactory,  this  species 
would  naturally  have  been  in  the  ascendency. 

The  native  red  raspberry  of  the  United  States  has  been 
much  longer  in  cultivation  than  the  black  raspberry  or  the 
blackberry,  but  is  much  younger  than  the  European  berry. 
In  spite  of  its  youthfulness,  it  has  long  since  outrun  its 
European  cousin  and  gained  control  of  the  commercial 
red  raspberry-growing  of  the  country.  While  it  may  be 
slightly  behind  the  European  berry  in  quality  of  fruit,  it 
is  so  thoroughly  at  home,  and  adapts  itself  so  readily  to 
cultivation,  that  it  has  become  a  far  more  desirable  market 
berry.  One  great  objection  to  the  red  raspberry  as  a 
market  fruit  is  its  long  bearing  season,  necessitating  so 
many  pickings  to  secure  the  crop.  The  American  sorts 
have  the  advantage  in  this  regard,  although  even  they 
ripen  too  unevenly. 

The  number  of  varieties  of  the  hybrid,  Rubus  neglectus, 
type,  or  Purple-cane  family,  as  it  was  formerly  called,  is 


The  Red  and  Hybrid  Raspberries  169 

a  point  of  interest  in  the  history  of  the  raspberry.  Some 
forty  varieties  can  be  definitely  placed  in  this  class. 
Among  those  too  little  known  to  permit  of  classification 
some  doubtless  also  belong  here.  The  group  includes  all 
variations  between  the  red  and  the  black  raspberry. 
Nearly  all  propagate  by  tips,  like  the  black-caps,  but  a 
few  propagate  by  suckers,  though  sparingly.  This  is 
true  of  the  Philadelphia  and  its  numerous  seedlings,  which 
are  much  more  like  Rubus  strigosus  than  Rubus  occiden- 
talis,  being  practically  red  raspberries  of  a  slightly  darker 
hue. 

Whether  plants  of  this  intermediate  character  should 
be  considered  hybrids  or  recognized  as  a  distinct  species 
was  long  an  unsolved  problem.  So  much  experimental 
work  in  breeding  raspberries  has  now  been  carried  on,  and 
so  many  artificial  hybrids  produced,  and  their  behavior 
and  characters  are  so  well  known  that  there  seems  no 
longer  any  reason  to  question  the  belief  that  all  these 
forms  are  primarily  of  hybrid  origin. 

Hybrids  often  lack  vigor  and  are  unproductive.  This  is 
true  of  some  Rubus  hybrids,  but  the  red  and  black 
raspberry  are  so  nearly  akin  that  hybrids  between  them 
do  not  necessarily  follow  this  rule.  Shaffer  and  Co- 
lumbian are  among  the  most  productive  varieties  in 
cultivation. 

The  history  of  the  red  raspberry  as  found  in  the  old 
herbals  and  other  ancient  writings,  as  well  as  its  develop- 
ment in  our  own  country,  is  interesting.  The  following 
account,  with  quotations  from  some  of  the  older  writers, 
was  at  one  time  contributed  to  "The  American  Garden" 
by  the  writer. 


170  Bush-Fruits 

History  and  Future  of  the  Red  Raspberries 

The  history  of  the  European  raspberry,  Rubus  Idceus,  runs  far 
back  into  the  ages.  It  is  mentioned  by  Cato,  who  lived  before  the 
beginning  of  the  Christian  era,  and  it  appears  to  have  been  a  natural 
product  of  Roman  territory.  Pliny  the  Elder,  supposed  to  have 
written  about  A.  D.  45,  mentions  it  as  one  of  the  wild  brambles 
which  the  Greeks  called  "Idea,"  having  derived  its  name  from 
Mount  Ida,  in  Asia  Minor,  at  the  foot  of  which  lay  the  renowned 
city  of  Troy.  In  this  mountain  were  said  to  dwell  fabulous  be- 
ings, who  were  credited  with  being  the  first  to  work  iron  and  copper, 
and  with  having  introduced  music  and  rhythm  into  Greece.  Per- 
haps we  may  infer  that  in  the  exercise  of  the  marvelous  powers 
which  they  were  alleged  to  possess,  they  produced  this  glorious 
fruit  to  appease  some  angry  god,  or  gladden  the  eye  and  delight 
the  taste  of  a  gracious  princess.  Although  deriving  its  name  from 
this  locality,  where  it  was  particularly  abundant,  the  raspberry  is 
indigenous  over  the  greater  part  of  Europe  and  northern  Asia.  It 
is  impossible  to  tell  whether  the  plants  were  cultivated  at  this  early 
date,  and  it  is  not  unlikely  that  the  gods,  like  many  mortals  of  the 
present  day,  were  obliged  to  be  content  with  the  precarious  supply 
to  be  found  growing  at  will  in  grove  and  glade.  Palladeus,  how- 
ever, a  Roman  writer  of  the  fourth  century,  mentions  the  rasp- 
berry as  one  of  the  cultivated  fruits  of  that  time.  From  a  work 
written  by  Conrad  Heresbach,  entitled  "Rei  Rusticse,"  published 
in  1570,  and  afterward  translated  by  Barnaby  Googe,  it  appears 
that  raspberries  were  little  attended  to  during  that  period.  John 
Parkinson,  in  his  "Paradisus,"  published  in  1629,  speaks  of  red, 
white  and  thornless  raspberries  as  suitable  for  the  English  climate. 
Stephen  Switzer,  in  1724,  only  mentions  three  kinds.  George  W. 
Johnson,  in  his  "History  of  English  Gardening,"  published  in 
1829,  gives  the  number  of  cultivated  varieties  as  twenty-three. 
From  these  detached  notes  it  appears  that  although  cultivated  at 
least  as  far  back  as  the  fourth  century,  it  nevertheless  did  not 
come  to  be  considered  a  fruit  of  any  importance  and  demand  at- 
tention until  the  close  of  the  sixteenth  century,  or  later. 

The  raspberry  never  seems  to  have  been  held  in  such  high  esteem 


«i^i  The  Defcription. 

£€  f  rambope  tgafein&eof 
cmble  ,  \iitjofe  leaues  anO 
fcaancfjeg  arc  not  muetje  fan* 


nuc  io  rougij  anD  pucbiep  ,  no?  fet  luitlj 
fo  manp  (1)  arp  e  pzicfele0,  anO  font  tim  e^ 
toif^out  piicfelc^^fpeciallp  tljenexue 


aboucr^agcofapcere/Ctjcfriutco: 


to  tl)cot^ei:.Cl)e  rooted  long  creptnff 
iiit^cgtounD.an&puttetljfooztljeuerp 


ti?e  ncpt  pccre  Do  o  bung  foojtlj 


C^e  jframbopetS;  founOe  m  fomc 
placet  of  JaotirtjtenD  inDarbetoooD^r 
anD  in  tl)t^  Cotmtuet&epplanteitm 
,  anO  it  louetlj 


notofteiu 


Fig.  22.  Description  of  the  raspberry  by  Dodoens,  1578. 


172  Bush-Fruits 

for  its  medicinal  properties  as  the  blackberry.  Gerard  Dewes,  in 
his  translation  of  "Dodoen's  Niewe  Herball,"  or  "Historic  of 
Plantes,"  published  in  1587,  enumerates  the  following  "vertues:" 

"The  leaves,  tender  springes,  fruit  and  roote  of  this  Bramble 
are  not  much  unlyke,  in  vertue  and  working,  to  the  leaves,  shutes, 
fruite  and  rootes  of  the  other  Bramble,  as  Dioscorides  writeth. 

"The  flowers  of  Raspis  are  good  to  be  bruysed  with  hony,  and 
layde  to  the  inflammations  and  hoate  humours  gathered  togither  in 
the  eyes,  and  Erysipelas  or  wilde  fire,  for  it  quencheth  such  hoate 
burninges. 

"They  be  also  good  to  be  dronken  with  water  of  them  that  have 
weake  stomackes." 

The  illustration  (Fig.  22)  shows  a  specimen  of  the  text  of  this 
work,  giving  the  description,  habitat  and  time  of  flowering  of  the 
Framboye,  Raspis  or  Hyndberie,  as  the  raspberry  was  then  called 
in  French,  English  and  German,  respectively.  The  figure  of  the 
plant  (Fig.  23)  is  reproduced  from  John  Gerarde's  "Historic  of 
Plantes,"  published  in  1597. 

After  the  settlement  of  this  country  the  first  attempts  at  culti- 
vation, as  with  other  fruits,  were  with  varieties  which  had  been- 
familiar  in  England.  In  the  second  edition  of  William  R.  Prince's 
"Pomological  Manual,"  published  in  1832,  fourteen  varieties  are 
described  and  six  others  mentioned  as  meriting  culture.  All  but 
four  of  these  are  probably  varieties  of  R.  Idceus,  although  in  some 
cases  it  is  impossible  to  decide  with  certainty.  Of  these  four,  at 
least  three  appear  to  be  forms  of  R.  strigosus  from  different  lo- 
calities, while  the  fourth  may  belong  to  the  Rubus  neglectus,  or 
Purple-cane  type.  One  of  the  varieties  which  appears  to  be  European 
may  also  belong  here.  The  American  Pomological  Society,  at  its 
second  session  in  1853,  recommended  four  varieties  for  general  culti- 
vation, and  commended  one  more  as  promising,  all  of  which  were 
foreign  sorts.  In  the  catalogue,  as  recommended  by  the  last  session 
in  1891,  there  appear  fourteen  varieties  of  Rubus  Idceus,  one  of  which 
is  placed  there  doubtfully,  and  six  of  which  are  seedlings  of  American 
origin.  There  are  also  twenty-nine  native  varieties,  six  of  which  are 
classed  under  R.  neglectus,  fourteen  under  R.  occidentalis,  and  nine 
under  R.  stngosus.  This,  however,  is  far  from  representing  the  true 


Fig.  23.  Gerarde's  picture  of  the  raspberry,  1597. 


174  Bush-Fruits 

state  of  comparative  cultivation  of  the  foreign  and  native  species 
and  varieties  at  the  present  time,  for  of  the  fourteen  foreign  varieties 
and  their  seedlings  still  retained,  not  over  five  or  six  are  now  culti- 
vated to  any  extent,  and  these  only  in  very  limited  areas. 

While  the  Rubus  Idceus  type  is  everywhere  acknowledged  to  be 
superior  in  the  quality  of  its  fruit,  it  is  not  able  to  maintain  itself 
against  summer  suns  and  winter  winds,  and  has  had  to  give  place 
to  hardier  sorts,  better  able  to  fight  their  own  battles  and  emerge 
from  them  bearing  abundant  trophies  of  fruit,  not  so  exquisite,  per- 
haps, yet  more  substantial  and  sure.  Moreover,  with  the  gradual 
improvement  which  has  gone  on,  there  is  at  present  little  need  for 
foreign  varieties.  The  best  of  our  natives  yield  fruit  which  is  doubt- 
less far  superior  to  that  which  gratified  the  gods  on  Mount  Ida  in 
those  days  of  war  and  wonder.  Among  the  first  varieties  of  R. 
strigosus  to  become  prominent  were  the  Stoever  and  Brandywine. 
The  former  is  a  form  of  the  American  red,  found  wild  near  Lake 
Dunmore,  in  Vermont,  by  Jefferson  F.  Stoever,  and  removed  to  his 
garden  at  Tacony,  near  Philadelphia,  where  it  first  fruited  in  1859. 
The  Brandywine,  or  Susqueco,  as  it  was  at  one  time  called  (Susqueco 
being  the  Indian  name  for  Brandywine),  is  of  unknown  origin.  It 
first  attracted  attention  in  the  Wilmington  market,  and  was  for  a 
time  called  Wilmington. 

We  are  accustomed  to  boast  of  the  marvelous  progress  in  all  lines 
of  American  development.  What  advance  can  we  show  in  the  im- 
provement of  the  raspberry?  Some,  to  be  sure,  but  most  of  it  has 
been  mere  accident.  In  looking  up  the  history  of  varieties  it  is  the 
same  story  over  and  over  again — "a  chance  seedling  found  growing 
wild,"  etc.  Nearly  all  of  our  prominent  varieties  have  originated 
in  this  way.  A  few  men  have  gone  to  work  systematically  to  breed 
and  develop  varieties.  The  first  and  most  prominent  of  these  was 
Dr.  William  D.  Brinckle,  of  Philadelphia — a  busy  physician,  who, 
having  a  taste  for  pomology,  pursued  it  as  a  means  of  recreation 
from  other  duties.  He  experimented  with  strawberries  and  pears, 
as  well  as  with  raspberries.  So  important  was  his  work  in  these  lines 
that  he  seems  to  be  much  better  remembered  for  that  than  for  his 
medical  reputation,  although  he  was  successful  and  prominent  in 
this  field  also.  He  was  president  of  the  American  Pomological  So- 


History  and  Future  of  the  Red  Raspberries     175 

ciety  at  its  second  session,  and  for  many  years  vice-president  of  the 
Pennsylvania  Horticultural  Society,  repeatedly  refusing  its  presi- 
dency. Unfortunately  his  work  on  raspberries  was  with  the  Rubus 
Idceus  species,  and  most  of  the  varieties  which  he  produced  have 
suffered  the  fate  of  the  class  to  which  they  belonged;  yet  he  obtained 
in  Brinckle's  Orange  the  variety  which  has  stood  as  the  desideratum 
to  be  sought  in  quality  to  the  present  day.  Another  who  achieved 
good  results  in  this  line  was  David  W.  Herstine,  of  Branchtown,  near 
Philadelphia,  the  originator  of  the  Herstine,  Saunders,  Ruby  and 
Elizabeth  raspberries;  yet  these  were  simply  seedlings  of  the  Allen, 
grown  in  alternate  rows  with  the  Philadelphia.  William  Saunders, 
of  Ontario,  has  also  produced  a  number  of  varieties,  some  of  which 
are  said  to  be  hybrids. 

Good  as  the  varieties  are  which  we  have,  we  want  further  im- 
provements. Nothing  is  good  enough  to  satisfy  human  demands. 
We  want  back  all  we  have  lost  in  giving  up  the  raspberry  of  our 
forefathers  beyond  the  sea;  but  coupled  with  that,  we  want  all  we 
have  gained  from  the  hardier  species  of  our  own  country.  We  want 
a  red  raspberry  as  good  as  Brinckle's  Orange  in  quality,  as  large  and 
productive  as  Cuthbert  and  of  brighter  color,  as  hardy  as  the  Turner, 
and  we  want  it  on  a  black-cap  bush  without  the  thorns.  Will  we 
get  it?  The  Shaffer  is  our  nearest  approach  at  present.  What  the 
possibilities  of  careful,  systematic  and  progressive  breeding  are, 
only  the  future  can  show. 

No  marked  change  in  the  status  of  the  red  and  hybrid 
raspberry  in  America  is  apparent  since  the  above  words 
were  written,  some  twenty-five  years  ago.  Cuthbert  is 
still  the  leading  red  variety,  with  Marlboro  prominent  in 
some  localities.  In  the  hybrid  class  Columbian  is  sup- 
planting Shaffer.  New  varieties  have  appeared,  to  be 
sure,  and  some  of  them  may  become  prominent,  especially 
in  certain  regions.  Much  systematic  work  in  crossing 
and  hybridizing  has  been  done  and  many  seedlings  have 
been  grown.  Among  those  prominent  in  this  work  have 


176  Bush-Fruits 

been  members  of  the  horticultural  staff  at  the  Geneva, 
New  York,  Experiment  Station,  Saunders  and  others  in 
Ontario,  Hansen  in  South  Dakota  and  the  writer  in  Rhode 
Island.  From  all  this  work  a  few,  but  very  few,  varieties 
have  been  introduced.  Many  had  good  qualities,  but  few 
were  of  sufficient  merit  to  replace  those  already  in  cultiva- 
tion. Pomological  progress  among  the  brambles  has  not 
been  rapid. 

In  the  following  list  of  varieties  those  known  to  belong 
to  the  hybrid  or  Purple-cane  class  are  followed  by  the 
letter  (H)  to  indicate  their  origin.  Similarly,  those  known 
to  be  of  foreign  parentage  or  Rubus  Idceus,  are  designated 
by  the  letter  (F).  Many  of  those  about  which  little  is 
known  also  doubtless  belong  here. 

Varieties  of  Red  and  Hybrid  Raspberries 

Addison  (H). — Originated  on  the  grounds  of  L.  M.  Macomber, 
of  North  Ferrisburgh,  Vt.  Canes  rooting  at  the  tips,  though 
rather  like  the  reds  in  color.  Fruit  with  the  flavor  of  the  red 
raspberry. 

Allen. — See  False  Red  Antwerp. 

Allen  Red  Prolific. — Same  origin  as  the  Allen.  Perhaps  also  in- 
cluded under  the  False  Red  Antwerp. 

All  Summer  (F). — Introduced  by  John  Lewis  Childs,  of  Floral 
Park,  N.  Y.,  as  having  been  purchased  from  Mrs.  A.  A.  Stowe.  Said 
to  have  come  from  Mexico,  by  way  of  California.  Recommended 
for  its  ability  to  endure  extreme  heat. 

Alpine  (F). — Imported  from  the  Mediterranean  with  Cretan  Red 
and  Flesh-colored  by  William  R.  Prince,  who  believed  them  to  be 
closely  related. 

Alton. — Introduced  by  The  Gilbertson  Nursery  Company  of  Iowa. 
Said  to  be  hardy,  productive,  of  high  quality,  with  a  long  fruiting 
season. 


Varieties  of  Red  and  Hybrid  Raspberries      177 

Amazon  (F). — Sent  out  from  Edesville,  Md.,  as  a  new  variety,  but 
thought  by  those  who  received  it  to  be  the  Fontenay. 

American  Red  (Common  Red,  English  Red). — Prince  states  in 
the  Pomological  Manual  published  in  1832,  that  although  this  is  a 
native  of  New  York,  growing  naturally  in  the  Catskill  mountains, 
it  is  frequently  termed  English  Red.  He  says  the  shoots  are  of  a 
dark  red  hue  and  grow  very  long.  The  spines  on  the  present  year's 
shoots  are  purplish  in  color  near  the  base,  but  greenish,  with  brown 
or  purplish  barbs  or  points  on  the  upper  part.  The  fruit  is  one  of 
the  earliest  to  mature,  of  medium  size,  fine  flavor  and  greatly  es- 
teemed. He  comments  on  the  fact  that  this  is  the  only  variety 
grown  to  any  extent  for  the  New  York  market,  and  that  there  were 
nearly  one  hundred  acres  on  Long  Island  devoted  to  its  culture  at 
that  time.  Evidently  this  is  a  forerunner  of  American  Red  raspberry 
culture,  but  undoubtedly  plants  from  various  sources  passed  under 
this  name. 

Andrews. — Thought  by  J.  T.  Lovett  to  be  identical  with  High- 
land Hardy,  while  James  Smith,  of  Iowa,  is  positive  that  this  and 
the  Highland  Hardy  are  only  the  Kirtland  renamed. 

Arnold  Orange  (Orange  King)  (F). — Originated  with  Charles 
Arnold,  Paris,  Ont.  Fruit  large,  dark  orange  color,  unsurpassed  for 
flavor.  Said  to  be  a  yellow-cap  crossed  with  Rubus  Idceus. 

Arnold  Red  (F). — Origin  same  as  the  previous;  the  best  known  of 
Mr.  Arnold's  seedlings.  Said  to  bear  a  good  crop  both  in  July  and 
in  September.  Also  said  to  be  a  cross  between  the  yellow-cap, 
Rubus  occidentalis,  and  Rubus  Idceus. 

Arnold  Yellow  (Yellow  Canada)  (F). — Of  the  same  origin  and 
parentage  as  the  two  preceding.  Fruit  nearly  white;  plant  of  a 
peculiar  albino  appearance. 

Babcock  (H). — Sent  to  the  Geneva  (N.  Y.)  Experiment  Station  in 
1892,  by  Daniel  W.  Babcock.  Canes  purplish,  thickly  beset  with 
weak  prickles. 

Bagley  Perpetual  (Bagley's  Everbearing). — Originated  about 
1854,  at  New  Haven,  Conn.  Introduced  in  1858  by  A.  Bridgeman, 
a  florist  of  New  York. 

Baker  (F). — A  seedling  of  Merveille  des  Quatre  Saisons.  Raised 
by  Mr.  Parnell,  of  Cincinnati. 


178  Bush-Fruits 

Barnet  (Cornwall's  Prolific,  Cornwall's  Seedling,  Lord  Exmouth, 
Large  Red,  Barnet  Antwerp,  Barnet  Cane)  (F). — An  old  English 
variety,  said  by  Prince  to  resemble  Red  Antwerp,  but  distinguished 
by  its  branching  canes  and  long,  slender,  reddish  prickles. 

Barter. — First  grown  by  William  Barter,  of  Penryn,  Placer  county, 
Cal.,  to  whom  it  was  given  as  a  "foundling."  Grown  in  the  foot-hill 
regions  of  that  state. 

Bawnforth  (Baumforth's  Seedling)  (F). — Originated  in  England 
from  seed  of  the  Northumberland  Fillbasket. 

Beckwiih  (H). — An  unnamed  chance  seedling,  which  originated 
with  Professor  M.  H.  Beckwith,  Newark,  Del.  Described  by  him 
as  a  red  berry,  not  purple,  reproducing  by  tips.  Fruit  resembling 
the  black-caps  in  shape,  aromatic,  of  excellent  quality. 

Beehive. — Introduced  by  Messrs.  Winter  &  Co.,  of  the  Linnsean 
Botanic  Garden.  Flushing,  N.  Y. 

Berkeley  (Dwindle,  Kelsey,  New  French). — Prolific,  large  and 
handsome. — Ashley  Nursery  Catalogue,  California. 

Biggar  Seedling  (F). — Raised  by  C.  A.  Biggar,  of  Drummondville, 
Ont.,  from  an  unknown  European  variety.  Largely  used  as  a  parent 
variety  by  Professor  William  Saunders,  of  London,  Ont.,  in  producing 
his  hybrid  varieties. 

Black  (English  Black)  (F). — Mentioned  by  Downing  as  a  hybrid 
from  England. 

Black  Hills.— Mentioned.    Proc.  N.  J.  Hort.  Soc.  1900:  195. 

Brandywine  (Susqueco,  Wilmington). — Said  to  have  been  found 
near  Brandywine  Creek  at  Wilmington,  Del.  It  first  attracted 
attention  in  the  Wilmington  market,  and  was  for  a  time  called  the 
Wilmington.  Mr.  Edward  Tatnell,  of  that  city,  undertook  to  in- 
troduce it  under  the  name  Susqueco,  the  Indian  name  for  the 
Brandywine. 

Brentford  Cane  (F). — An  old  English  variety  of  little  value. 

Brentford  Red  (F). — Mentioned  by  Prince  in  Pomological  Manual. 

Brentford  White  (F).— Offered  by  Prince  &  Mills  in  1822. 

Brilliant. — Midseason.  Fruit  bright,  glossy  red,  large  and  firm, 
productive,  ripening  evenly. 

Bristol. — Hardy,  vigorous,  suckering  immoderately.  Fruit  re- 
sembling the  Brandywine,  but  not  so  large  nor  firm. 


Varieties  of  Red  and  Hybrid  Raspberries      179 

Bromley  Hill  (F). — An  old  red,  English  variety. 

Bronze  Queen. — Mentioned.    Mo.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  13  (1891). 

Buckeye. — Received  at  the  New  York  Agricultural  Experiment 
Station,  Geneva,  New  York,  in  1910  from  W.  N.  Scarff,  New  Carlisle, 
Ohio.  Plants  hardy,  medium  in  height,  stocky,  susceptible  to  an- 
thracnose.  Foliage  large,  dark  green.  Fruit  late,  somewhat  lacking 
in  size,  dark  red,  with  large  drupes,  giving  a  coarse,  unattractive 
appearance,  slightly  crumbly,  sprightly,  almost  tart;  not  equal  to 
the  best  kinds;  fall-bearing  tendency. 

Burlington  (Prosser)  (F). — Originated  by  Benjamin  Prosser,  of 
Burlington,  N.  J.  Downing  states  that  two  or  three  varieties  were 
sent  out  under  this  name. 

Canada. — Sold  by  Prince  &  Mills  of  Flushing,  Long  Island,  in  1822; 
also  known  as  Purple  Rose-flowering.  Possibly  Rubus  odoratus. 

Canada  Red. — Mentioned  by  Prince  in  1832,  as  first  noticed  by 
him  growing  along  the  roadside  a  few  miles  from  Montreal,  where 
the  plants  were  numerous. 

Cardinal  (Griesa)  (H). — Originated  on  the  grounds  of  A.  H.  Griesa, 
Lawrence,  Kans.,  in  1888,  apparently  from  the  seed  of  the  Shaffer. 
Vigorous,  propagating  by  tips  when  young,  but  throwing  up  some 
suckers  as  it  grows  older.  Fruits  large,  soft,  juicy,  dark;  particularly 
susceptible  to  anthracnose. 

Carleton. — Mentioned  as  on  trial  at  the  Experiment  Station  at 
Agassis,  B.  C. 

Caroline  (H). — Originated  with  S.  P.  Carpenter,  New  Rochelle, 
N.  Y.,  and  supposed  to  be  a  seedling  of  Brinckle's  Orange,  crossed 
by  Golden-cap.  Canes  hardy  and  prolific,  but  not  vigorous.  Fruit 
medium,  roundish-oblate,  pale  salmon,  too  soft  for  market,  and  dull 
and  unattractive  when  over-ripe.  The  variety  suckers  freely,  and 
may  also  be  propagated  by  tips,  with  care. 

Carpenter  No.  1. — Vigorous,  early,  bright  red. 

Carter  Prolific  (F). — An  English  variety. 

Catawissa  (H). — Found  growing  in  a  Quaker  graveyard,  at  Cata- 
wissa,  Columbia  county,  Pa.  Brought  to  notice  by  Joshua  Pierce, 
of  Washington,  D.  C.  Canes  strong,  branching,  with  few  hooked 
spines;  tender  at  the  North.  Fruit  dark  reddish-purple.  Produced 
fruit  in  autumn  to  some  extent. 


180  Bush-Fruits 

Champlain  (F). — A  chance  seedling  found  in  the  garden  of  Mr. 
Macomber,  of  Grand  Isle  county,  Vt.  Believed  to  be  from  seed 
of  White  Antwerp,  which  it  much  resembles  in  the  character  of 
its  canes.  Introduced  by  Ellwanger  &  Barry  in  1892. 

Charles  the  Bold  (F). — Mentioned  as  one  of  Arnold's  hybrids. — • 
Mich.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  Ill  :  263. 

Chester. — Mentioned  as  good  in  Michigan. 

Christine  (F). — A  late  red  variety  sent  out  by  E.  P.  Roe. 

Cincinnati  Red  Antwerp. — Mentioned  as  grown  in  Wisconsin 
about  1874. — Mich.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  Ill  :  263.  Perhaps  the  same 
as  False  Red  Antwerp. 

Citizen  (H). — A  hybrid  between  Gregg  and  Cuthbert,  produced  by 
Professor  William  Saunders,  London,  Ont. 

Clarke  (F). — Raised  by  E.  E.  Clarke,  New  Haven,  Conn.  Ap- 
parently one  of  the  best  adapted  foreign  varieties  for  our  climate. 

Cline  (F). — A  chance  seedling  sent  out  for  trial  by  G.  W.  Cline, 
Winona,  Ont.,  in  1893. 

Coleman  No.  1. — Fruit  small,  soft,  fine-flavored. 

Cole  Prolific. — Exhibited  at  the  Chicago  Exposition  in  1893  by 
the  Fruit  Growers'  Association  of  Ontario.  Found  growing  wild 
on  the  farm  of  R.  D,  Cole,  of  Port  Dalhousie,  Ontario. 

Colonel  Wilder  (F).— A  seedling  raised  by  Dr.  W.  D.  Brinckte,  of 
Philadelphia,  Pa.,  from  seed  of  the  Fastolf,  and  named  in  honor 
of  Marshall  P.  Wilder.  Fruit  very  delicate  yellowish  white. 

Colossal  (H). — Sent  by  I.  F.  Street,  of  West  Middleton,  Ind.,  to 
the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  in  1892.  A  seedling 
of  Shaffer,  which  it  closely  resembles. 

Columbian  (H). — Said  to  be  a  seedling  of  Cuthbert  grown  near 
Gregg,  on  the  grounds  of  J.  T.  Thompson,  Oneida,  N.  Y.  A  variety 
of  the  Shaffer  type,  which  it  very  much  resembles.  A  strong,  vig- 
orous grower,  and  very  productive.  Fruit  large,  moderately  juicy, 
fairly  firm,  nearly  sweet,  somewhat  darker  in  color  than  the  Shaffer, 
ripening  a  little  later.  Columbian  has  now  become  the  leading  com- 
mercial variety  of  the  hybrid  type. 

Cook's  Seedling. — Reported  by  Dewain  Cook,  of  Windom,  Minn., 
as  exceedingly  hardy  and  very  productive. 

Cope  (Vice-President  Cope)  (F). — Originated  with  Dr.  Brinckle", 


Varieties  of  Red  and  Hybrid  Raspberries      181 

and  named  in  honor  of  Caleb  Cope,  vice-president  of  the  American 
Pomological  Society  for  Pennsylvania  in  1852.  Thomas  calls  it 
a  late  sub-variety  of  the  Red  Antwerp. 

Cornish  (F). — An  English  variety  long  discarded. 

Cox  Honey  (F). — An  old  English  white  variety. 

Craig. — A  seedling  of  unknown  parentage.  Originated  by  Pro- 
fessor Saunders,  of  Ontario,  and  named  in  honor  of  Professor  John 
Craig. 

Cretan  Red  (F). — Imported  from  the  Mediterranean  by  Prince. 

Crimson  Beauty. — Found  by  Dr.  Stayman,  of  Leavenworth,  Kans., 
in  1875,  growing  in  a  patch  of  Imperial.  Introduced  by  A.  M. 
Purdy,  of  Palmyra,  N.  Y. 

Crimson  Cluster. — Described. — Ninth  Annual  Kept.  Geneva 
(N.  Y.)  Exp.  Sta. 

Crimson  Queen. — A  variety  offered  by  L.  L.  May  &  Co. 

Crystal  White  (F). — A  seedling  originated  by  A.  J.  Cay  wood,  of 
Marlboro,  N.  Y.  Fruit  light  lemon  color.  Possibly  belongs  to  the 
purple-cane  class. 

Gushing  (F). — Raised  by  Dr.  Brinckle",  of  Philadelphia,  and  named 
in  honor  of  J.  P.  Gushing,  of  Watertown,  Mass. 

Cuthbert  (Conover,  Queen  of  the  Market,  Quinby's  Favorite). — 
Probably  the  best  known  of  all  red  raspberries,  and  the  most  de- 
sirable single  market  sort.  It  was  a  chance  seedling  found  by 
Thomas  Cuthbert  in  his  garden  at  Riverdale,  now  in  New  York 
city;  about  1865.  It  is  a  strong,  vigorous,  upright  grower,  some- 
times branching;  spines  short,  stout,  purplish,  rather  numerous 
toward  the  base,  but  often  wanting  toward  the  tips.  Fruit  large, 
dark  crimson,  obtuse  conical,  grains  rather  small  and  compact. 
Flesh  quite  firm,  juicy,  sprightly,  and  of  fair  quality.  Its  chief 
defect  as  a  market  berry  is  its  color,  which  is  too  dark.  Mr.  Conover, 
the  asparagus  man,  seeing  its  value,  spread  it  in  his  neighborhood, 
giving  it  undesignedly  the  name  Conover.  In  New  Jersey  it  was 
disseminated  by  William  Parry  as  Queen  of  the  Market.  It  is  still 
the  leading  commercial  red  raspberry.  Ezra  Brainerd  of  Middle- 
bury,  Vt.,  a  careful  student  of  the  genus  Rubus,  is  led  to  think  that 
Cuthbert  has  an  admixture  of  foreign  blood  in  its  make-up. 

Delaware  (F). — Said  to  be  an  American  seedling  of  the  Hornet. 


182  Bush-Fruits 

Diadem  (F). — Produced  by  Charles  Arnold,  of  Ontario,  by  cross- 
ing the  American  White-cap  with  Franconia,  a  seedling  of  this  cross 
with  White  Four-seasons,  and  the  offspring  of  this  by  Hornet, 
Imperial,  and  Fontenay,  the  Diadem  being  one  of  the  resulting 
seedlings. 

Dictator  (H). — Said  to  be  a  cross  between  Shaffer  and  Gregg,  pro- 
duced by  Luther  Burbank,  of  Santa  Rosa,  Cal. 

Donboro. — Originated  at  the  New  York  Agricultural  Experiment 
Station,  Geneva,  New  York,  in  1898,  from  Loudon  x  Marlboro. 
Plants  hardy  except  in  the  most  severe  winters,  very  productive, 
stockier  than  either  parent.  Foliage  attractive  dark  green;  berries 
large,  holding  up  in  size  during  the  season,  attractive  light  red,  very 
firm,  equal  to  Marlboro  in  flavor  and  quality,  ripening  in  midseason. 

Double-Bearing  Red  (Perpetual-Bearing,  Twice-Bearing,  Late 
Liberian,  Late  Cane,  etc.)  (F). — Mentioned  by  Prince  and  by 
Bridgeman.  Downing  says,  it  was  formerly  esteemed  for  its  autumn 
bearing  habit,  but  was  then  superseded  by  better  kinds. 

Downing  (F). — A  seedling  of  the  Orange,  by  Charles  Downing. 

Duhring  (F). — A  seedling  of  Hornet  originated  by  Henry  Duhring, 
of  Belmont,  near  Philadelphia. 

Dyack  Seedling  (F). — Imported  by  Robert  Buist,  of  Philadelphia, 
about  1840,  and  known  only  as  a  parent  of  Brinckle's  Orange. 

Duncan  (H). — A  hybrid  between  Gregg  and  Cuthbert,  produced 
by  Professor  William  Saunders,  of  Ontario.  Fruit  large,  purple,  of 
better  quality  than  the  Shaffer,  ripening  later.  Canes  strong,  vig- 
orous, propagating  both  by  suckers  and  by  tips. 

Early  Prolific  (H). — A  seedling  raised  from  the  Philadelphia  by 
Oscar  Felton,  of  Camden  county,  N.  J.  Free  from  thorns.  Also  an 
old  English  variety. 

Early  Richmond. — Mentioned  in  Garden  and  Forest,  1892,  p.  458, 
as  grown  in  Cayuga  county,  N.  Y. 

Early  White. — Mentioned.    Hovey's  Mag.  of  Hort.  1837,  p.  23. 

Eastern  King. — Found  by  O.  A.  King,  of  Deering,  Maine,  in  a 
garden  in  the  town  of  Westbrook,  about  1864  or  1865.  Dull  red. 

Elizabeth. — One  of  D.  W.  Herstine's  seedlings,  examined  and  de- 
scribed by  a  committee  of  the  Pennsylvania  Horticultural  Society 
of  1870. 


Varieties  of  Red  and  Hybrid  Raspberries      183 

Ellisdale  (H). — Found  growing  wild  on  the  Ellisdale  farm,  in  Iowa, 
in  1856,  by  J.  E.  Johnson.  Introduced  by  H.  A.  Terry,  of  Crescent, 
Iowa.  Elsdale,  from  Nebraska,  mentioned  in  Hovey's  Magazine 
1865:  122,  is  probably  this. 

Elm  City, — "A  hardy  sort.  Size  and  flavor  much  like  Philadel- 
phia. Eight  to  ten  days  later  than  other  varieties." — Downing.  "A 
thornless  variety,  vigorous  in  growth,  hardy  and  productive.  Fruit 
large,  good  color,  firm  and  sweet." — Ohio  Hort.  Soc.  Kept.  1807: 114. 

Emily  (F). — One  of  Dr.  Brinckle's  seedlings. 

Empire  (F). — A  seedling  of  Biggar  raised  by  Prof.  William  Saund- 
ers,  of  London,  Ont. 

Empire.— Originated  by  L.  E.  Wardell,  Marlboro,  N.  Y.,  from 
seed  of  Ruby,  pollinated  by  Coutant.  Said  to  be  healthy,  hardy 
and  productive;  fruit  large,  bright  crimson,  good.  New,  promising. 

English  Cane  (Twice-Bearing)  (F). — For  sale  by  Prince  &  Mills, 
of  Flushing,  L.  I.,  in  1822. 

English  Giant  (F). — Imported  from  Denmark,  by  W.  D.  Barnes  & 
Son,  Middlehope,  N.  Y. 

English  Globe  (F). — Mentioned  by  Downing. 

English  Red  Cane  (English  Purple,  False  Red  Cane,  Allen). — 
Mentioned  under  this  name  and  synonymy  by  F.  R.  Elliott  as  a  va- 
riety much  grown  by  market-gardeners  in  1865. — Mich.  Exp.  Sta. 
Bull.  Ill  :  273.  Possibly  the  same  as  False  Red  Antwerp. 

English  White  (Old  English  Yellow[?])  (F).— For  sale  by  Prince 
&  Mills,  of  Flushing,  L.  I.,  in  1822  at  8  cents  each.  The  White 
Antwerp  sold  at  25  cents  each,  and  the  American  White  at  12j^ 
cents  each. 

Erwood  Everbearing. — On  trial  on  the  grounds  of  The  Rural  New- 
Yorker  in  1879. 

Eureka  (H). — A  seedling  of  the  third  generation  from  Shaffer, 
larger  and  brighter  red.  Originated  with  Luther  Burbank. 

Everbearing  Red  (F). — Mentioned  by  William  Parry  in  1869. 

Everbearing  Tree. — Introduced  by  Bradley  Brothers,  Makanda, 
Illinois.  Said  to  grow  in  branching,  tree  form. 

Excelsior. — Said  to  have  originated  in  Wisconsin.  A  variety  of 
this  name,  perhaps  the  same,  is  reported  as  worthless  in  Ohio. 

False  Red  Antwerp  (Allen,  Allen's  Antwerp,  English  Red  Cane, 


184  Bush-Fruits 

Kirtland). — In  1828,  or  thereabouts,  an  English  gardener  brought 
to  Cleveland,  Ohio,  a  variety  without  name.  It  proved  hardy,  pro- 
ductive, valuable.  The  Red  Antwerp  was  then  the  standard  variety, 
and  this  sort  was  called  by  that  name.  Later,  when  the  true  Red 
Antwerp  came  to  be  known,  this  one  took  the  prefix  "False,"  and 
came  to  be  a  popular  market  sort,  under  the  name  of  False  Red 
Antwerp.  Still  later,  three  varieties  came  to  be  distributed  as  this, 
two  of  them  probably  having  originated  as  seedlings  in  the  original 
plantation.  Later  F.  R.  Elliott  sent  to  an  occupant  of  lands  of 
Lewis  F.  Allen,  plants  gathered  indiscriminately  from  a  plantation 
of  the  False  Red  Antwerp  raspberry.  In  time  it  was  found  that  the 
Allen  raspberry  embraced  all  the  varieties  enumerated  under  the 
name  False  Red  Antwerp.  Professor  I.  P.  Kirtland  at  one  time  gave 
plants  of  the  False  Red  Antwerp,  Fastolf,  and  Franconia  raspberries 
to  Mrs.  Follet,  of  Sanduskjr,  the  former  being  hardy  and  the  latter 
tender.  After  a  time  the  tender  sorts  died  out,  while  the  hardy  one 
attracted  the  attention  of  H.  B.  Lum,  of  Sandusky,  who,  without 
knowledge  of  its  character,  but  knowing  that  it  came  from  the 
garden  of  Professor  Kirtland,  named  and  sent  it  out  as  a  seedling  of 
the  Professor's,  and  under  his  name. 

The  botanical  relationship  of  the  Allen  raspberry  is  a  matter 
of  dispute.  Thomas  Meehan  believed  that  it  belonged  to  the  type 
of  Rubus  Idceus,  while  A.  S.  Fuller  thought  there  could  be  no  ques- 
tion about  its  being  a  true  R.  strigosus.  It  is  quite  evident  that  more 
than  one  variety  must  have  been  known  under  this  name. 

Fastolf  (Filby)  (F). — One  of  the  best  English  varieties,  said  to 
have  originated  near  the  ruins  of  an  old  castle  of  that  name  in  Great 
Yarmouth.  First  advertised  by  Yuell  &  Co..  1843.  Figured, 
Hovey's  Mag.  1846:  299.  Crozier  cites  a  reference  indicating  an 
earlier  origin. 

Flesh-colored  (Frambosier  Couleur  de  Chair)  (F). — Said  to  have 
been  obtained  by  William  R.  Prince  from  the  Mediterranean  with 
the  Cretan  Red,  which  it  resembles. 

Fontenay  (Belle  de  Fontenay,  Belle  d'Orleans,  Amazon)  (F). — A 
French  variety  with  stocky,  vigorous,  somewhat  branching  canes, 
suckering  freely,  especially  when  young.  One  of  the  hardiest  and 
most  reliable  European  varieties.  Crozier  spells  this  name  Fontenoy. 


Varieties  of  Red  and  Hybrid  Raspberries      185 

Four-Seasons  Red  (Merveille  de  Quatre  Saisons,  October  Red) 
(F) . — A  French  variety  with  a  well-developed  autumn-bearing  habit. 
Thought  by  many  American  cultivators  to  be  the  same  as  Fontenay. 
The  variety  imported  from  Germany  by  the  German  Nursery  Com- 
pany of  Beatrice,  Neb.,  under  the  name  of  Merveille  is  probably  the 
same. 

Four-Seasons  Yellow  (White  Four-Seasons,  October  Yellow)  (F). — 
Imported  from  France  in  1863  by  Charles  Arnold,  of  Paris,  Ont. 
Said  to  be  a  seedling  of  the  preceding,  and  similar  to  it. 

Franconia  (Abel,  Naomi  [?])  (F). — Received  from  Messrs.  Vil- 
morin,  of  Paris,  many  years  ago  by  Samuel  G.  Perkins.  Said  to 
have  been  little  known  in  European  catalogues  except  as  returned 
from  this  country.  It  was  one  of  the  comparatively  well-known 
foreign  varieties  on  this  side  of  the  water. 

French  (R.  M.  Conklin's). — Mentioned  by  William  Parry,  in 
1869,  as  declining  in  favor. 

French  (Vice-President  French)  (F). — Raised  by  Dr.  Brinckle1, 
from  Fastolf  crossed  with  Yellow  Antwerp,  and  named  in  honor 
of  B.  U.  French,  vice-president  of  the  Massachusetts  Horticultural 
Society. 

French  Everbearing  (F). — Said  to  have  been  imported  from  France 
by  California  nurserymen. 

Fulton  (F). — A  seedling  of  the  French  raised  by  Dr.  Brinckle. 
Named  in  honor  of  James  D.  Fulton,  of  Pennsylvania. 

Ganargua  (H). — Found  growing  wild  by  Stephen  Katkamier,  of 
Farmington,  Ontario  county,  N.  Y.,  about  1867.  Described  as 
vigorous,  hardy,  and  productive,  possessing  the  everbearing  habit. 
Fruit  dark  red,  approaching  purplish  brown.  Propagates  from 
tips. 

Garden  (Doolittle's  Red  Flavored  Black-Cap)  (H). — A  variety  in- 
troduced by  H.  H.  Doolittle,  of  Oaks  Corners,  N.  Y.  The  Purple- 
cane  raspberry  was  also  known  under  this  name.  Whether  this 
is  the  same,  or  whether,  indeed,  it  might  have  been  a  true  black- 
cap, it  is  difficult  to  say. 

Gardiner  (H). — Mentioned  as  a  new  variety  of  unknown  origin, 
intermediate  between  the  Purple-cane  and  the  black-cap. 

Garnet  (H). — A  seedling  of  the  Philadelphia,  produced  in  1885  by 


186  Bush-Fruits 

Professor  William  Saunders,  of  London,  Ont.  Described  as  hardy, 
vigorous,  and  productive.  Fruit  purplish  red. 

General  Patterson  (F). — A  seedling  of  the  Colonel  Wilder  raised  by 
Dr.  Brinckle;  named  for  General  Patterson,  of  Pennsylvania. 

Genesee  (F).— Red;  sent  out  by  Z.  H.  Harris,  of  Rochester,  N.  Y. 

Gilford's  Seedling  (F). — An  English  sort  of  good  quality. — Fuller. 

Gladstone  (Carpenter's  No.  2,  Erie)  (H). — A  chance  seedling,  orig- 
inating with  Charles  Carpenter,  of  Kelley's  Island,  Ohio,  who  sent 
it  out  about  1888,  first  as  Carpenter's  No.  2,  and  then  as  Erie.  Later 
it  was  introduced  by  Green's  Nursery  Co.,  of  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  as 
Gladstone.  Described  as  vigorous  and  hardy,  producing  consider- 
able fruit  in  autumn.  Fruit  medium  size,  dark  red,  of  excellent 
quality. 

Gold. — A  yellow  variety  sent  to  the  Michigan  Experiment  Station 
by  M.  H.  Ridgeway,  Wabash,  Ind. 

Golden  Alaska. — Introduced  by  John  A.  Salzer,  of  La  Crosse, 
Wis.,  in  1891.  Reported  to  have  been  found  in  Alaska. 

Golden  Cluster. — Not  entirely  hardy,  making  but  few  plants;  fruit 
golden  yellow,  juicy,  of  high  quality. 

Golden  Queen. — This  was  found  on  the  grounds  of  Ezra  Stokes, 
of  Camden,  N.  J.,  about  1883,  in  a  patch  of  Cuthbert.  To  all  in- 
tents and  purposes,  it  is  a  Cuthbert  with  yellow  fruit.  Sports  in 
color  from  this  variety  are  not  uncommon.  Instances  are  recorded 
where  part  of  the  berries  on  a  shoot  have  been  yellow  and  part  red, 
and  even  the  individual  fruits  have  been  variegated.  The  variety 
is  one  of  the  most  satisfactory  yellow-fruited  sorts,  possessing  much 
the  same  qualities  as  its  parent,  the  Cuthbert. 

Golden  Prague  (F). — Imported  from  Denmark  by  W.  D.  Barnes  & 
Son,  of  Middlehope,  N.  Y. 

Grant. — Mentioned  in  1869,  as  a  new  variety  from  Auburn,  N.  Y. 

Grape  (Mason's  Seedling  Grape)  (F). — Raised  from  seed  by  Mr. 
Mason,  a  gardener,  at  Charleston,  Mass.  Said  to  have  been  pro- 
duced by  crossing  the  Scarlet  Rockingham  and  Red  Antwerp. 

Grape  Vine. — Sent  out  in  1878  by  William  Holland,  Plymouth, 
Ind.,  who  obtained  his  original  plants  from  John  German,  of  Indiana. 
Ornamental,  but  of  no  value  for  fruit. 

Hansell. — A  chance  seedling  found  on  the  farm  of  Hansell  Bros., 


Plate  V.     Raspberries.— Black  Pearl  above;  Herbert  beneath. 


Varieties  of  Red  and  Hybrid  Raspberries     187 

near  Beverly,  N.  J.,  about  1875.  Introduced  by  J.  T.  Lovett  in  1882. 
Quite  prominent  at  one  time  as  an  early  variety. 

Harris. — Sent  out  by  Z.  H.  Harris,  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  in  1889. 

Haymaker  (H). — Vigorous,  hardy  and  productive.  Fruit  of  high 
quality,  not  so  dark  as  Columbian,  firmer  and  said  to  be  larger  and 
not  to  crumble. 

Hawkins  Orange. — Of  no  value. — William  Parry. 

Heebner  (F). — Described  by  John  Craig,  at  Ottawa,  Canada,  as  a 
large  red  berry  of  the  Clarke  and  Hornet  type. 

Henrietta  (F). — A  seedling  from  Connecticut,  introduced  by 
G.  H.  &  J.  H.  Hale.  Said  to  be  similar  to  Fontenay. 

Herbert. — Origin  Ottawa,  Canada.  Very  hardy,  especially  adapted 
to  cold  climates.  Fruit  large,  early,  bright  to  deep  red,  juicy,  sprightly 
and  of  high  quality.  Considered  one  of  the  best  varieties  hi  the 
Hudson  River  Valley.  Seedlings  of  Herbert  at  the  Geneva,  N.  Y., 
Experiment  Station  lacked  vigor  as  a  rule.  (See  Plate  V.) 

Herstine. — This  originated  with  Mr.  D.  W.  Herstine,  of  Branch- 
town,  Pa.,  according  to  whose  statement  it  was  raised  from  seed 
of  the  Allen  raspberry,  which  had  been  planted  in  alternate  rows 
with  the  Philadelphia.  Described  by  William  Parry  in  the  following 
words:  "As  large  as  Hornet,  bright  as  Pearl,  hardy  and  productive 
as  Philadelphia,  and  delicious  as  Allen." 

Highland  Hardy  (Highland  Antwerp). — A  sport  or  chance  seed- 
ling which  originated  near  Highland  village,  on  the  Hudson,  about 
1870. 

Hildreth  (H).— "  Introduced  by  Isaac  Hildreth,  of  Big  Stream 
Point,  N.  Y.,  as  a  native  sort  found  near  that  place." — Downing. 

Hiram.— Sent  out  by  W.  J.  Bradt,  of  Hannibal,  N.  Y.  Thought 
to  be  a  cross  between  Rubus  strigosus  and  Rubus  Idaeus. 

Hornet  (F). — A  French  variety  raised  by  M.  Souchet,  of  Bagnolet, 
near  Paris.  Introduced  here  by  Aubrey  &  Souchet,  of  Carpenter's 
Landing,  N.  J.,  about  1859.  Fig.,  Gar.  Month.  1  : 122. 

Howell. — Mentioned  by  F.  R.  Elliott  in  the  Transactions  of  the 
Ohio  Pomological  Society  for  1865,  as  being  then  in  cultivation. 

Hudson  River  Antwerp  (New  Red  Antwerp,  North  River  Ant- 
werp) (F). — Said  to  have  been  obtained  from  England  by  Mr.  Bridge, 
of  Poughkeepsie,  N.  Y.  E.  P.  Roe,  in  "Success  with  Small  Fruits," 


188  Bush-Fruits 

gives  an  interesting  account  of  the  rise  and  fall  of  this  variety  in 
the  Hudson  River  Valley. 

Hudson  River  Red. — Exhibited  before  the  Cincinnati  Horticul- 
tural Society  in  1860  by  F.  W.  Slack,  of  Kentucky,  who  was  then 
growing  it  for  the  Cincinnati  market. 

Huntsman  Giant  (F). — A  seedling  of  the  Franconia  raised  by  F.  W. 
Huntsman,  of  Flushing,  N.  Y.,  who  grew  many  seedlings,  hoping  to 
gain  a  hardy  variety  equal  to  the  more  tender  kinds. 

Hybrid  Crimson  Mammoth  (H). — Found  wild  at  Adams,  N.  Y.,  by 
Dr.  E.  R.  Maxson,  who  brought  it  into  cultivation. 

Idaho. — Found  growing  in  an  old  garden  in  Idaho.  Plant  stocky, 
branching,  not  very  tall,  producing  less  suckers  than  most  varieties; 
very  hardy.  Fruit  large,  shaped  like  a  black-cap,  deep  rich  red, 
ripening  from  July  to  October,  producing  more  in  autumn  than 
most  so-called  everbearing  sorts. 

Imperial  (F). — A  large  French  variety  introduced  by  Aubrey  & 
Souchet,  of  Carpenter's  Landing,  N.  J. 

Imperial  Red  (Red  Imperial). — A  variety  grown  in  New  Jersey. 

Imperial  White  (F).— Catalogued  by  Ellwanger  &  Barry,  in  1860. 

Iowa  (Eaton). — Found  in  Iowa.  Named  and  introduced  by  M.  J. 
Wragg.  Rather  dwarf,  canes  strong,  thornless,  leaf  dark  and  heavy. 
Early,  productive,  large,  rich  dark  red,  of  excellent  quality  but  tends 
to  crumble.  Fruit  sometimes  attacked  by  mildew  when  ripe.  More 
generally  catalogued  under  the  name  of  Eaton. 

7.  X.  L. — A  chance  seedling  discovered  by  Charles  Schlessler, 
of  Naperville,  111.,  in  1887. 

Johnson. — Received  from  Cincinnati  by  E.  Y.  Teas,  of  Indiana, 
in  1875,  and  reported  to  be  much  like  the  Philadelphia. 

June. — This  variety  is  the  result  of  a  cross  between  Loudon  and 
Marlboro,  in  1897,  on  the  grounds  of  the  Geneva,  N.  Y.,  Experiment 
Station,  and  disseminated  from  there  in  1909.  Described  as  more 
vigorous  than  either  of  its  parents  and  equally  hardy.  Plant  up- 
right, healthy  and  very  productive,  producing  but  few  suckers. 
Begins  ripening  the  last  of  June  at  Geneva  and  continues  through 
a  long  season.  Fruit  bright  red,  larger  than  Cuthbert  but  less 
conical,  holding  its  size  unusually  well  till  the  end  of  the  season, 
firm,  keeping  and  shipping  well,  quality  excellent. 


Varieties  of  Red  and  Hybrid  Raspberries      189 

Jouet  (F). — A  French  variety  introduced  here  by  Aubrey  & 
Souchet. 

Kenyon. — Introduced  by  O.  A.  Kenyon,  of  McGregor,  la.,  who 
found  it  growing  among  black  raspberries  about  1885.  Thought  to 
be  identical  with  Loudon  as  grown  at  the  Mich.  Exp.  Station. 

Keystone. — Originated  with  A.  L.  Felten,  of  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

King  (Thompson's  King)  (F). — Sent  out  by  the  Cleveland  Nur- 
sery Co.,  of  Rio  Vista,  Va.,  in  1892.  Early,  round,  light  crimson, 
juicy  and  good.  Grown  from  seed  by  T.  Thompson,  Richmond,  Va. 

Kirtland. — See  False  Red  Antwerp. 

Knevett  Giant  (F). — Imported  from  England  by  Marshall  P. 
Wilder  in  1843,  having  been  received  as  a  present  from  Messrs. 
Chandler  &  Co.,  of  Vauxhall,  who  stated  that  the  ones  they  gave 
to  Mr.  Wilder  were  all  they  had  ever  had. 

Kreigh. — Brought  to  notice  about  1880. 

Lady  Ann  (F). — A  seedling  of  Biggar  Seedling,  produced  by  Pro- 
fessor William  Saunders,  of  London,  Ont. 

Large-fruited  Monthly  (Rivers's  Large-fruited  Monthly,  Rivers's 
New  Monthly)  (F). — Said  to  have  been  imported  from  the  continent 
to  England  by  Thomas  Rivers,  in  1847.  Brought  here  later. 

Large  White.— Mentioned.    Hovey's  Mag.  Hort.  1837:  23. 

Lindley. — Raised  by  Joseph  B.  Lindley,  of  Newark,  N.  J.,  early 
in  the  sixties.  Said  to  be  a  hybrid  between  the  Fastolf  and  the  Na- 
tive Red. 

Linton  (Red). — Mentioned  about  1870. 

Little  Prolific  (H). — A  red  variety  originated  with  John  Little,  of 
Ontario.  Sent  out  in  1883.  Probably  Rubus  neglectus. 

Longworth  (F). — One  of  Dr.  Brinckle's  Seedlings. 

Lord  Beaconsfield  (F). — Mentioned  as  an  English  variety  on  trial 
at  the  Experimental  Farm  at  Agassiz,  B.  C. 

Lost  Rubies  (F). — A  variety  said  to  have  been  found  growing  in 
a  bed  of  Naomi,  by  A.  M.  Purdy,  and  sent  to  Charles  A.  Green,  of 
Rochester,  N.  Y.,  who  introduced  it.  Regarded  by  many  as  identical 
with  Naomi. 

Loudon. — Originated  by  Frank  W.  Loudon,  of  Janesville,  Wis., 
who  states  that  it  is  a  seedling  of  Turner  crossed  by  Cuthbert.  Canes 
vigorous,  hardy  and  productive.  Berry  large,  somewhat  conical 


190  Bush-Fruits 

Grains  large,  with  a  suture,  firm  and  of  a  good  red  color,  but  not 
equal  to  Cuthbert  in  quality.  Introduced  by  Charles  A.  Green,  of 
Rochester.  Prominent  at  one  time. 

Magnum  Bonum  (F). — Introduced  from  England  about  1840. 
Said  to  be  similar  to,  if  not  the  same  as,  Yellow  Antwerp. 

Manitou. — Grown  in  Illinois.    Similar  to  Cuthbert. 

Marion's  Favorite. — Mentioned.    Proc.  N.  J.  Hort.  Soc.  1900:  195. 

Marlboro. — A  popular  variety  originated  by  A.  J.  Caywood, 
of  Marlboro,  N.  Y.,  who  described  it  as  "A  cross  of  the  Highland 
Hardy,  and  a  seedling  started  from  English  Globe  and  the  Hudson 
River  Antwerp  thirty  years  ago.  It  is  a  larger  grower,  with  stronger 
canes  than  any  known  variety;  hardy  in  the  fullest  sense;  berries 
averaging  three-quarters  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  and  when  not  re- 
tarded by  long,  severe  drought,  many  of  them  will  average  one  inch. 
It  will  remain  four  days  on  the  bushes  after  ripe,  and  is  then  market- 
able. It  is  bright  crimson  in  color,  and  does  not  lose  its  brilliancy 
when  over-ripe."  This  is  one  of  the  best  known  and  most  generally 
prized  early  market  sorts.  Hardy,  vigorous,  productive,  and  a 
thoroughly  good,  all-round  berry.  The  leading  market  variety  in 
some  localities,  especially  along  Lake  Erie. 

Marldon. — A  seedling  produced  at  the  Geneva,  N.  Y.,  Experiment 
Station  by  crossing  Marlboro  with  Loudon.  Plants  were  distributed 
during  the  spring  of  1908.  The  plants  are  described  as  of  Marlboro 
type  but  more  vigorous  and  stockier,  producing  many  suckers  and 
soon  likely  to  become  crowded.  Hardy,  productive  and  healthy. 
Fruit  large,  retaining  its  size  well  as  the  season  advances,  but  ripens 
in  a  comparatively  short  time,  about  one  week  ahead  of  Cuthbert, 
firm,  dark  red,  of  fair  quality. 

Mary. — Raised  from  seed  by  Professor  William  launders,  of 
London,  Ont.  Fruit  light  red,  as  large  as  Cuthbert. 

May  Orange. — Offered  for  sale  by  L.  L.  May  &  Co. 

Mendocino. — A  Pacific  coast  variety.  Said  to  have  originated 
in  Mendocino  county,  Cal. ;  used  by  Luther  Burbank,  in  the  produc- 
tion of  some  of  his  seedlings. 

Meredith  Queen. — Discovered  growing  wild  in  the  town  of  Meredith, 
Delaware  county,  N.  Y.,  in  1880,  by  E.  J.  Brownell,  who  sent  out 
plants  for  trial  in  1883.  Bearing  canes  dark  brown;  new  growth 


Varieties  of  Red  and  Hybrid  Raspberries     191 

purplish  green,  tips  red;  suckers  freely.  Fruit  of  pale  orange  or 
reddish  salmon  color.  A  strictly  native  red  raspberry  except  in  color. 

Merkel  (H). — Described  as  hardy  and  productive,  not  throwing 
up  suckers.  Fruit  firm,  with  somewhat  of  a  currant  flavor.  Darker 
than  Cuthbert,  resembling  Gregg  in  shape  and  size. 

Michigan  (Michigan  Early). — Introduced  about  1883  by  William 
Parry,  of  New  Jersey.  It  was  generally  supposed  to  have  originated 
in  Michigan,  though  William  Parry,  Jr.,  is  under  the  impression 
that  the  first  plants  came  from  Tennessee. 

Miller  (Miller's  Woodland). — A  popular  variety  at  one  time  in 
the  Delaware  peninsula.  Origin  same  as  the  Brandywine.  De- 
scribed as  strong,  stocky,  hardy  and  productive.  Fruit  large,  bright 
crimson,  firm,  sprightly,  subacid,  of  excellent  quality.  Resembles 
Brandywine  but  ripens  earlier. 

Miller  Favorite. — Mentioned  as  on  trial  at  the  Michigan  Experi- 
ment Station  in  1887.— Bull.  Ill  :  291. 

Minnesota  No.  1. — A  seedling  of  King  x  Loudon,  introduced  by 
Charles  Haralson  of  the  Experimental  Sub-station  at  Excelsior, 
Minn.  Similar  to  No.  4  but  ripening  about  a  week  earlier. 

Minnesota  No.  4- — Of  the  same  origin  and  parentage  as  the  pre- 
ceding. Considered  one  of  the  hardiest  of  raspberries,  a  strong  grower 
and  resistant  to  disease.  Fruit  ripening  about  a  week  later  than 
King,  much  larger  than  either  parent,  dark  red,  of  fair  quality  and 
very  firm,  standing  long  shipments  well  and  being  one  of  the  best 
market  varieties  in  Minnesota. 

Minnetonka. — A  red  raspberry  originated  about  1890  by  F.  J. 
Empenger,  Maple  Plain,  Minn.,  who  had  Turner,  Cuthbert  and  wild 
red  raspberries  growing  together.  He  dusted  pollen  from  a  branch 
of  the  wild  berries  on  Turner  and  Cuthbert,  from  the  Turner  on  the 
wild  and  on  Cuthbert,  and  from  Cuthbert  on  Turner  and  the  wild 
plants.  He  used  seed  from  all  three,  mixing  it  for  planting,  and 
secured  the  Minnetonka  among  the  seedlings. 

Mohler  No.  1. — Mentioned  as  a  red  variety  on  trial  at  the  Indiana 
Experiment  Station. 

Montdair  (H). — Originated  on  the  grounds  of  E.  and  J.  C.  Wil- 
liams, Montclair,  N.  J.,  and  supposed  to  be  a  seedling  of  the  Phila- 
delphia. 


192  Bush-Fruits 

Mote  Everbearing  (H) .— Raised  by  L.  S.  Mote,  of  West  Milton, 
Ohio.  An  everbearing  variety  resembling  Catawissa.— Downing. 

Mrs.  Ingersoll  (F). — One  of  Dr.  Brinckle's  seedlings.    Yellow. 

Mrs.  Wilder  (F). — A  seedling  of  the  Colonel  Wilder,  similar  in 
color.  Named  by  Dr.  Brinckl6. 

Mrs.  Wood  (H). — Originated  with  Mrs.  Reuben  Wood,  near  Cleve- 
land, Ohio. 

Muriel  (F). — A  seedling  raised  from  Biggar  Seedling  by  Professor 
Saunders. 

Muskberry. — Sent  out  by  John  Lewis  Childs  of  Floral  Park,  N.  Y. 
An  extremely  rank  grower,  spreading  badly  from  the  roots  and  be- 
coming a  nuisance.  Fruit  of  good  size  and  attractive  but  insipid 
and  disagreeable.  A  musky  odor  is  thrown  off  by  the  plants. 

Muskingum  (Shaffer's  Sister,  Melott's  Favorite)  (H). — Originated 
in  the  orchard  of  Mrs.  Simeon  Ellis,  Coshocton  county,  Ohio,  near 
the  Muskingum  River.  Named  and  introduced  by  James  Madison, 
of  Chili,  Ohio.  Similar  to  Shaffer,  but  not  as  tall. 

My  Seedling. — Mentioned  by  George  J.  Kellogg  in  the  Report 
of  the  Wisconsin  Horticultural  Society  for  1887,  p.  241. 

Naomi  (F). — Said  to  have  been  produced  from  seed  sown  by  Mrs. 
Governor  Wood,  of  Rockport,  Ohio,  about  1850.  Introduced  by 
F.  R.  Elliott.  The  question  of  the  identity  of  this  variety  with 
the  Franconia  was  investigated  by  a  committee  of  the  Ohio  State 
Horticultural  Society  in  1868.  It  was  found  that  the  stock  sent 
out  from  Mrs.  Wood's  place  was  badly  mixed.  She  grew  seedlings 
from  the  Red  Antwerp  and  Franconia,  and  from  the  mixture  dis- 
tributed plants.  The  sort  which  proved  the  best,  and  thus  came 
to  survive  as  the  true  Naomi,  was  doubtless  the  Franconia  itself, 
or  a  seedling  of  it,  which  was  so  nearly  like  the  parent  as  to  be  indis- 
tinguishable from  it. 

Narragansett  (F). — A  seedling  of  Brinckle's  Orange  raised  by 
John  F.  Jolls,  of  Providence,  R.  I. 

Nebraska. — Mentioned  in  1869,  as  no  longer  popular. 

Newark. — Mentioned  as  on  trial  in  1892,  at  the  Oklahoma  Ex- 
periment Station. 

New  Everbearing  (F). — Noticed.  Proc.  Cincinnati  Hort.  Soc. 
1861. 


Varieties  of  Red  and  Hybrid  Raspberries      193 

New  Prolific.— Mentioned.    Rep.  Kan.  Hort.  Soc.  for  1884. 

New  Rochelle  (H). — Supposed  to  be  a  seedling  of  the  Catawissa. 
Raised  by  S.  P.  Carpenter,  New  Rochelle,  N.  Y.,  and  apparently 
introduced  by  E.  W.  Carpenter,  of  Rye,  N.  Y.,  though  the  Country 
Gentleman  for  1881  speaks  of  it  as  having  originated  with  W.  S. 
Carpenter. 

Niagara. — A  Canada  variety  of  good  flavor  and  texture;  color 
dark. 

Northern  Wonder. — Spoken  of  as  an  excellent  variety  found  by 
one  of  the  Feltens.— Gar.  Month.  13  :  246. 

Northumberland  Fillbasket  (F). — English.    Introduced  about  1855. 

Norwalk  (F).— Introduced  in  1879,  by  Mallory  &  Downs,  of  South 
Norwalk,  Conn.  Thought  by  Lovett  to  be  the  same  as  Naomi  and 
Franconia. 

Norwood  (Norwood's  Prolific)  (H). — A  variety  originated  hi 
Massachusetts,  propagating  by  tips.  Fruit  similar  to  Philadelphia. 

Nottingham  Scarlet  (F). — An  old  English  variety,  introduced  be- 
fore 1850  by  Marshall  P.  Wilder. 

Ohta. — A  variety  selected  by  Professor  Hansen  of  South  Dakota 
from  a  lot  of  6000  hybrid  seedling  raspberries.  It  is  the  result  of 
crossing  a  wild  red  raspberry  from  North  Dakota  with  Minnetonka. 
It  is  described  as  hardy  and  very  productive,  with  beautiful  red 
fruit,  which  is  fairly  firm  and  of  good  quality.  Introduced  as  a 
variety  adapted  to  the  rigorous  climate  of  the  Dakotas.  Ohta  is  the 
Sioux  Indian  name  for  much  or  many. 

Olathe  (Stayman's  No.  5). — Originated  by  J.  Stayman,  of  Leaven- 
worth,  Kans.,  from  seed  of  Reliance. 

Orange  (Brinckle's  Orange)  (F). — This  noted  variety  originated 
with  Dr.  W.  D.  Brinckle,  of  Philadelphia,  in  1845.  It  long  repre- 
sented the  ideal  quality  to  be  sought  in  the  raspberry.  Roe  speaks 
of  it  as  a  hybrid  between  Rubus  Ido3us  and  our  native  species.  It 
was  raised  from  seed  of  Dyack  Seedling,  an  English  variety  of  deep 
crimson  color,  but  what  the  staminate  parent  was  does  not  now  ap- 
pear. According  to  Dr.  Brinckle,  it  reproduced  itself  generally  from 
seed.  It  is  described  as  essentially  an  Antwerp,  but  more  vigorous. 
Fruit  of  a  beautiful  buff  color,  and  delicious  flavor.  It  did  not  thrive 
under  hot  suns  or  upon  light  land,  succeeding  south  of  New  York 


194  Bush-Fruits 

only  in  cool,  moist  soils  and  in  shady  locations.  It  always  required 
winter  protection. 

Osceola. — Originated  in  Osceola  county,  in  northwestern  Iowa. 

Palluau  (F). — A  French  variety,  described  by  Downing. 

Papier  (F). — An  old  French  variety.  Known  also  as  Le  Noire  or 
Tue-Homme.  Introduced  about  1820  at  Bagnolet,  near  Paris. 

Parnell  (F). — Said  to  be  a  seedling  of  Merveille  des  Quatre  Saisons, 
raised  by  Mr.  Parnell,  of  Cincinnati. 

Parry's  Nos.  1  and  2. — Originated  with  William  Parry,  of  New 
Jersey,  but  not  considered  by  him  worth  introducing. 

Patrician  (F). — A  temporary  name  applied  by  E.  P.  Roe  to  a 
variety  imported  from  France  by  Mr.  Downing. 

Pearl  (Red  Pearl). — Origin  unknown.  Cultivated  considerably 
about  Philadelphia  at  one  time. 

Pennsylvanian. — A  variety  mentioned  by  Prince,  hi  the  Porno- 
logical  Manual,  as  obtained  from  a  London  nursery  under  the 
name  Rubus  Pennsylvanicus,  but  which  he  had  later  found  to  be 
identical  with  plants  received  from  the  forests  of  Maine. 

Percy  (H). — A  hybrid  between  Gregg  and  Cuthbert,  produced  by 
Professor  William  Saunders,  of  London,  Ont.  Much  like  Shaffer. 

Perfection. — Originated  by  F.  W.  Loudon,  of  Janesville,  Wis.,  and 
said  to  be  a  cross  between  Cuthbert  and  Turner.  Described  as  pro- 
ductive, large,  handsome,  of  good  color  and  flavor  but  not  so  firm 
as  Cuthbert. 

The  name  is  also  applied  to  a  variety  said  to  have  originated  in 
the  Hudson  River  Valley  and  described  as  much  like  the  old  Brandy- 
wine,  a  good  grower,  hardy  and  a  heavy  yielder  but  inclined  to  drop 
if  not  picked  closely.  Fruit  of  good  size,  bright  red,  firm. 

Philadelphia  (H). — A  chance  seedling,  found  wild  near  Philadel- 
phia, Pa.,  about  1835,  which  proved  itself  to  be  hardy,  productive, 
and  well  suited  to  light  soils  in  the  southern  portions  of  the  Middle 
states.  Described  as  vigorous,  tall,  branching,  almost  free  from 
spines.  Fruit  medium,  roundish,  dark  crimson  or  purplish  red; 
flesh  rather  soft,  moderately  juicy,  mild  subacid. — Downing.  This 
variety  resembles  Rubus  strigosus  much  more  closely  than  do  the 
Catawissa,  Shaffer,  and  others  of  the  true  Purple-cane  type;  yet  it 
is  evidently  intermediate  between  the  red  and  black  raspberries,  and 


Varieties  of  Red  and  Hybrid  Raspberries      195 

not  a  true  red  raspberry.  Although  propagating  by  suckers,  these 
are  produced  but  sparingly,  and  the  fruit  is  darker  in  color  than  the 
true  red  raspberries.  Occasionally  it  will  root  at  the  tips. 

Phoenix. — Fairly  productive;  fruit  of  good  size,  rich  dark  red,  of 
high  quality.  Early  and  promising. 

Pilate  (F). — A  French  variety,  imported  by  Aubrey  &  Souchet. 

Pomona. — Introduced  by  William  Parry  about  1887.  One  of 
the  most  uniformly  productive  varieties  grown  at  the  Geneva 
(N.  Y.)  Experiment  Station.  Of  vigorous  growth  and  fine  ap- 
pearance. Fruit  a  pleasing  red,  large  and  firm.  Season  very  long. 

Pride  of  Kent  (F). — Originated  by  Mr.  Fallstaff,  of  Kent,  England. 
Imported  about  1887  by  Henry  King,  of  Jefferson,  Colo.,  and  intro- 
duced in  1892  by  R.  S.  Edwards,  of  Hignland,  Colo. 

Pride  of  the  Hudson  (F). — A  chance  seedling,  which  originated  in 
the  garden  of  T.  H.  Roe,  of  Newburg,  N.  Y.,  about  1872,  and 
gave  unusual  promise.  It  was  propagated  and  introduced  by  E.  P. 
Roe. 

Prince  Globose  (F).— Raised  by  W.  R.  Prince,  of  Flushing,  L.  I. 

Prince  of  Wales  (Cutbush's  Prince  of  Wales)  (F).— An  English 
variety,  mentioned  by  Downing. 

Princess  Alice  (F). — Fuller  speaks  of  this  as  a  new  English  variety, 
raised  by  Cutbush  &  Son,  of  Highgate,  England. 

Prolific  Red  (F). — Described  by  Prince  in  1832. 

Pullman. — A  variety  mentioned  as  on  trial  at  the  New  York 
Experiment  Station  about  1884. — Mich.  Hort.  Soc.  Rept.  1884  :  251. 

Purple  Cane  (Purple  Prolific,  English  Purple,  Red  Prolific,  Amer- 
ican Red  Cane,  Garden  Raspberry,  Huntsville,  English  Red,  Allen 
and  English  Brown  erroneously)  (H). — This  is  probably  the  oldest 
cultivated  variety  of  this  type.  It  was  grown  about  New  York  at 
least  one  hundred  years  ago.  It  is  supposed  to  have  been  a  native 
variety.  Described  as  having  strong,  tall,  recurved  canes,  often 
branching,  reddish  purple.  Spines  rather  long,  stiff,  and  moderately 
numerous.  Berries  small,  purple,  good,  but  too  soft  for  market. 

Purple  Dulcet  (H).— Mentioned.    111.  Hort.  Soc.  Rept.  1875  :  268. 

Queen  Marguerite. — A  red  variety  on  trial  in  Michigan  about 
1885. 

Rancocas. — Introduced  by  William  H.  Moon,  of  Morrisville,  Pa., 


196  Bush-Fruits 

in  1884.    Originated  as  a  seedling  on  the  farm  of  J.  S.  Hansel],  taking 
its  name  from  the  place  of  its  origin,  on  the  Rancocas  Creek. 

Ranere  (St.  Regis). — Grown  in  New  Jersey  for  a  time  by  a  colony 
of  Italian  gardeners  as  Ranere.  Later  introduced  by  J.  T.  Lovett 
under  the  name  St.  Regis.  Canes  stocky,  vigorous,  hardy  and  pro- 
ductive, bearing  both  on  young  and  on  old  canes.  Early  and  con- 
tinuing to  ripen  until  October.  Fruit  bright  crimson,  rich,  sugary, 
meaty  and  a  good  keeper.  Introduced  as  an  everbearing  but  chiefly 
valuable  for  its  main  crop. 

Red  Antwerp  (Old  Red  Antwerp,  Knevett's  Antwerp,  True  Red 
Antwerp,  Rowland's  Red  Antwerp,  Frambosier  a  Gros  Fruit,  Bur- 
ley)  (F). — One  of  the  oldest  European  varieties.  It  is  supposed  to 
have  derived  its  name  from  the  city  of  Antwerp,  in  Belgium,  though 
the  plant  itself  is  said  to  have  come  from  the  Island  of  Malta.  It  is 
one  of  the  best  of  the  European  sorts,  and  is  still  grown,  even  for 
market,  in  the  United  States.  Described  as  having  strong,  long, 
yellowish  green  canes,  slightly  glaucous,  tinged  with  purple,  cov- 
ered with  dark  brown  bristles.  Bearing  wood  nearly  smooth.  Fruit 
large,  conical,  dark  red,  rich  and  sweet.  Many  other  varieties  have 
received  this  name  at  times.  It  is  figured  in  the  Report  of  the  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture  for  1866. 

Red  Cane  (F). — A  favorite  market  variety  at  one  time  in  the 
vicinity  of  Hartford,  Conn.  Introduced  there  without  name,  and 
was  probably  some  well-known  variety  like  the  Hudson  River 
Antwerp,  or  true  Red  Antwerp. — Mich.  Ex.  Sta.  Bull.  Ill  :  303. 

Red  Cluster.— Described  by  T.  T.  Lyon  in  1893  as  late,  of  medium 
size  and  of  good  quality. 

Re(e)der. — A  seedling  found  near  Stevensville,  Mich.,  about  1875. 

Redfield  (H). — Introduced  by  the  Iowa  Seed  Company,  of  Des 
Moines,  1895.  Discovered  on  the  farm  of  D.  W.  Humphrew,  near 
Redfield,  Iowa.  Resembles  Shaffer. 

Red  Jacket. — A  recent  introduction,  closely  resembling  Cuthbert 
both  in  plant  and  fruit,  but  ripening  later  and  in  a  shorter  period  of 
time.  Va.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  147. 

Red  Queen. — Mentioned  as  no  longer  popular  in  1869. 

Red  Sweet  (F). — Imported  from  Denmark  by  W.  D.  Barnes  &  Son, 
of  Middlehope,  N.  Y. 


Varieties  of  Red  and  Hybrid  Raspberries      197 

Reliance  (H). — A  descendant  of  Philadelphia,  raised  by  O.  L.  Fel- 
ten,  of  N.  J. 

Richardson.— Mentioned  as  an  inferior  variety  cultivated  in  the 
West.— Gar.  Month.  1862  :  339. 

Rider.— Mentioned.    Amer.  Pom.  Soc.  Kept.  1891  :  119. 

Ridgeway. — From  M.  H.  Ridgeway,  Wabash,  Ind.  Thrifty  but 
unproductive  at  the  Michigan  Experiment  Station. 

Riley's  Early. — A  variety  from  New  Jersey. — Downing. 

Rivers  Orange  (Large  Orange,  River's  Yellow)  (F). — Raised  by 
Thomas  Rivers,  of  England. 

Royal  Church. — Originated  on  the  farm  of  Royal  Church,  of  Har- 
risonville,  Ohio,  near  Herstine  and  Philadelphia.  Fruit  dark  crim- 
son. May  belong  with  the  Rubus  neglectus  group. 

Royal  Purple  (H). — Originated  in  Indiana.  Claimed  to  be  un- 
usually hardy,  having  withstood  35  degrees  below  zero  uninjured. 
Vigorous,  productive,  ripening  late,  canes  nearly  thornless.  Fruit 
large,  very  firm,  easily  picked  and  stands  marketing  well. 

Ruby. — Raised  by  D.  W.  Herstine.  Canes  strong,  light  green, 
shaded  with  purple,  bearing  very  few  spines.  Fruit  large,  round, 
dark  crimson. 

Ruby. — A  seedling  of  Marlboro,  which  it  closely  resembles.  One 
of  the  best  market  varieties  in  the  Hudson  River  Valley. — R.  N.  Y. 
1910  : 1005. 

Russell  Red.— Raised  by  Dr.  G.  W.  Russell,  of  Hartford,  Conn., 
from  seed  of  the  White  Antwerp,  grown  near  Red  Cane. 

Salzer  Everbearing  Red  (H). — Origin  Illinois.  Introduced  by  the 
John  A.  Salzer  Seed  Co.,  Lacrosse,  Wis.,  as  a  cross  between  the 
Shaffer  and  the  Marlboro. 

Sarah  (H). — Originated  by  Professor  William  Saunders,  London, 
Ont.,  from  seed  of  the  Shaffer.  A  moderate  grower,  suckering  freely, 
and  propagating  only  that  way. 

Saunders  Hybrid  (No.  53?)  (H).— A  hybrid  between  Philadelphia 
and  Mammoth  Cluster,  produced  by  William  Saunders,  of  London, 
Ont.  Said  to  propagate  from  tips  only. 

Scarlet. — Under  this  name  was  disseminated  a  sort  found  mixed 
with  the  Allen  as  sent  out.  Fuller  thought  it  likely  to  be  Allen's 
Prolific. 


198  Bush-Fruits 

Scarlet  Gem. — A  seedling  of  the  Crimson  Beauty,  originated  by 
Dr.  J.  Stayman,  of  Leavenworth,  Kans.,  in  1876. 

Segrist. — A  chance  seedling  found  among  plants  of  Kansas  by 
Samuel  Segrist,  Holton,  Kansas,  in  1903,  and  introduced  by  F.  W. 
Dixon  of  that  place  in  1912.  Plants  stocky,  healthy,  productive; 
foliage  large,  thick,  dark  green;  berries  above  medium  in  size,  uni- 
form, roundish-conic,  medium  red,  attractive,  firm;  good  in  quality, 
ripening  late. 

Semper  Fidelis  (F). — An  English  variety,  mentioned  in  Hovey'a 
Magazine  as  new  in  1863. 

Shaffer  (Shaffer's  Colossal)  (H).— This  is  one  of  the  best  known 
varieties  of  this  type.  It  originated  in  the  garden  of  George  Shaffer, 
near  Scotsville,  Monroe  county,  N.  Y.,  about  1871.  Introduced  by 
Charles  A.  Green,  of  Rochester.  It  is  a  vigorous,  upright  grower, 
and  one  of  the  most  productive  raspberries  known.  Fruit  large, 
dark  red  or  purple,  moderately  firm,  sprightly,  subacid.  Its  color 
is  too  dark  to  be  attractive,  but  if  picked  before  fully  ripe,  while  yet 
red,  it  looks  fairly  well  in  market.  An  excellent  canning  variety. 
It  also  dries  well,  being  of  more  attractive  color  when  dried  than  true 
red  raspberries,  and  producing  more  pounds  of  dried  fruit  per  bushel. 
In  quality  it  is  not  far  behind  the  red  raspberries,  with  a  richness 
not  possessed  by  them. 

Shaffer  Seedling  No.  5  (H). — A  seedling  of  Shaffer,  mentioned  as 
on  trial  at  the  Rhode  Island  Experiment  Station. 

Sharpe  (F). — A  seedling  of  unknown  parentage,  produced  by  Prof. 
William  Saunders,  of  London,  Ont.  Similar  to  Heebner. 

Shipper's  Pride. — Hardy,  productive  and  an  excellent  shipper. 

Short-pointed  Cane. — Described  by  Prince,  in  the  Pomological 
Manual  published  in  1832,  as  almost  spineless,  with  close,  jointed 
canes.  Crozier  refers  it  to  Rubus  strigosus. 

Silver  Queen  (F). — A  yellow  variety,  sent  out  for  trial  in  1885  by 
Robert  Johnston,  of  Shortsville,  N.  Y.,  who  obtained  it  from  L. 
M.  Macomber,  of  Vermont,  under  the  name  "Silver  Skin." 

Sir  John  (F). — A  seedling  of  Biggar's  Seedling,  produced  by  Pro- 
fessor William  Saunders,  of  Ontario. 

Smith  Purple  (H). — Originated  with  B.  F.  Smith,  of  Lawrence, 
Kans.  Has  all  the  black-cap  characteristics  except  color. 


Varieties  of  Red  and  Hybrid  Raspberries      199 

Souchetti  (White  Transparent)  (F). — Raised  by  Messrs.  Souchet, 
near  Paris;  introduced  here  by  Aubrey  &  Souchet. 

Spring  Grove  (F). — Mentioned  by  Fuller. 

Stayman  No.  1  (H). — A  seedling  of  Shaffer  originated  with  Dr.  J. 
Stayman,  of  Leaven  worth,  Kans.,  in  1884.  Canes  upright  with  few 
laterals,  hence  lacking  in  productiveness.  Fruit  large,  rich  dark 
red,  of  good  quality. 

Stayman  No.  2. — Mentioned.    Mo.  Hort.  Soc.  Rep.  1883  :  203. 

St.  Louis. — A  popular  variety  in  the  vicinity  of  St.  Louis,  Mo., 
about  1867. 

Stoever. — A  form  of  the  American  Red,  found  wild  near  Lake 
Dunmore,  Vermont,  by  Jefferson  F.  Stoever,  who  removed  and 
fruited  it  near  Philadelphia,  in  1859. 

Sucre  de  Metz  (F). — A  white,  foreign  variety  introduced  by  L. 
Ritz,  of  Ohio,  in  1869. 

Sunbeam. — Introduced  by  N.  E.  Hansen  of  South  Dakota,  the 
only  one  saved  from  a  batch  of  several  thousand  seedlings.  Vigorous, 
perfectly  hardy  in  Dakota,  sturdy  and  upright  in  growth.  Fruit 
bright  crimson,  firm  and  of  good  quality. 

Superb  (F). — Mentioned  by  Fuller  as  an  old,  foreign  sort. 

Superb  (Churchman's  Superb)  (H). — Originated  by  John  Church- 
man, of  Burlington,  N.  J.,  and  supposed  by  him  to  be  a  seedling 
of  Philadelphia.  Propagates  by  suckers. 

Superb  d'Angleterre  (F). — Also  mentioned  by  Fuller. 

Superlative  (F) . — Introduced  by  Ellwanger  &  Barry,  of  Rochester, 
N.  Y.,  in  1892.  Described  as  hardy,  with  stout  canes.  Fruit  large, 
conical,  handsome  dull  red,  of  very  fine  flavor. 

Surpasse  Merveille  (F). — A  French  seedling  of  the  Merveille  de 
Quatre  Saisons.  Offered  in  France  in  1862. 

Surprise  (F). — A  chance  seedling  of  the  Franconia,  which  orig- 
inated in  Montgomery  county,  N.  Y. 

Surprise  (H). — Introduced  by  H.  G.  Breese,  Hoosick,  N.  Y. 

Surprise  d'Automne  (F). — A  white  variety  of  Rubus  Idceus,  intro- 
duced by  L.  Ritz,  of  Ohio,  about  1869. 

Sweet  Yellow  Antwerp  (F). — Mentioned  by  Downing. 

Syracuse. — An  accidental  seedling,  springing  up  in  a  garden  at 
Syracuse,  N.  Y.  Introduced  by  Green's  Nursery  Company,  Roches- 


200  Bush-Fruits 

ter,  N.  Y.  Bushes  medium  in  vigor,  not  fully  hardy,  with  large, 
rugose  foliage;  susceptible  to  anthracnose.  Berries  very  large,  light 
red,  not  very  firm,  sweet,  good,  late. 

Talbot  (F).— Originated  about  1885  with  J.  W.  Talbot,  of  Nor- 
wood, Mass.,  who  had  been  growing  Herstine  and  Fontenay. 

Talcott. — Sent  out  for  trial  by  G.  H.  &  J.  H.  Hale  of  Connecticut, 
in  1883.  Much  like  Turner  except  in  form. 

Tall  Red  Cane.— Described  by  William  Prince,  about  1832,  as 
productive.  Canes  covered  at  the  base  and  extremities  with  numer- 
ous fine  spines  or  hairs. 

Taylor  Paragon  (F). — Mentioned  by  Fuller  as  discarded. 

Thompson  Early  Pride. — Sent  out  in  1888  by  the  Cleveland 
Nursery  Co. 

Thompson  Early  Prolific. — Also  sent  out  by  the  Cleveland  Nur- 
sery Co. 

Thunderer  (F). — Mentioned  by  Thomas,  resembling  Franconia. 

Thwack. — Introduced  by  T.  W.  Foster,  of  Louisiana,  Mo.,  as 
obtained  from  T.  S.  Wilson,  of  New  York,  who  claimed  it  to  be  a 
cross  between  Herstine  and  Brandywine.  Attained  some  prominence 
as  a  market  berry. 

Trusty. — A  variety  of  unknown  origin,  on  trial  in  Canada. 

Turkish  Turban  (F). — Mentioned  in  Hovey's  Magazine,  1842: 
368. 

Turner  (Southern  Thornless,  Red  Thornless,  Southern  Red, 
Baldwin's  Choice,  Balding's  Choice). — Originated  by  Prof.  J.  B. 
Turner,  of  Jacksonville,  111.  A  full  account  of  its  origin  is  given 
in  E.  P.  Roe's  "Success  with  Small  Fruits."  Long  one  of  the  most 
popular  varieties,  and  still  grown.  Very  hardy,  vigorous;  canes 
golden  reddish-brown,  overspread  with  a  purple  bloom.  Almost 
free  from  spines.  Fruit  large,  bright  crimson,  roundish  conical,  soft, 
sweet,  and  of  excellent  flavor.  The  distribution  of  plants  by  a  man 
named  Baldwin  undoubtedly  caused  it  to  receive  the  name  Bald- 
win's Choice,  evidently  corrupted  to  Balding's  Choice. 

Twentieth  Century. — Said  to  be  a  seedling  found  in  a  garden  near 
Marlboro,  Ulster  County,  N.  Y.  Plants  were  secured  by  L.  L.  Wood- 
ford,  Syracuse,  N.  Y.,  in  1905,  who  four  years  later  named  it  Twen- 
tieth Century.  Plants  medium  in  vigor,  usually  showing  some 


Varieties  of  Red  and  Hybrid  Raspberries      201 

winter  injury,  productive.  Foliage  large,  dark  green,  crumpled. 
Fruit  late,  large,  bright  red,  somewhat  soft,  sprightly,  good. 

Vermont  (F). — A  seedling  of  the  Champlain.  Originated  by  L.  M. 
Macomber,  of  North  Ferrisburgh,  Vermont. 

Victoria  (Rogers'  Victoria,  Victor)  (F). — Imported  by  William  R. 
Prince. 

Virginia  Red. — A  variety  mentioned  by  Prince  in  the  Porno- 
logical  Manual,  published  in  1832. 

Walker  (F).— One  of  Dr.  Brinckle's  seedlings. 

Watson. — Midseason. 

Wauregan. — Mentioned  in  "Rural  Affairs,"  vol.  8,  p.  81. 

Waterloo. — Mentioned  among  the  varieties  planted  for  trial  at 
the  Mississippi  Agricultural  College  in  1888. — Mich.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull. 
111:318. 

Welch. — Described  as  vigorous,  hardy  and  productive.  Fruit 
large,  bright  crimson,  melting  and  so  sweet  and  rich  that  it  has  been 
known  as  the  Honey  raspberry. 

Welsh. — A  seedling  raised  by  Isaac  Welsh,  of  Camden  county, 
N.  J. 

Wetherbee  (H). — A  variety  from  New  York,  with  small,  round, 
purple  fruit. 

White  Canada. — Raised  by  Charles  Arnold,  of  Paris,  Ontario. 
Canes  brownish  yellow;  spines  white.  Pale  yellow,  of  decided  Ant- 
werp flavor. 

White-fruited. — A  white-fruited  form  of  Rubus  strigosus,  sent  to 
the  Cornell  University  Experiment  Station,  by  A.  S.  Fuller. 

White  Mountain  (Red). — Tender,  late,  unproductive. — Mass. 
Hatch  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  21  : 10. 

Williams  Preserving  (F). — An  old  English  variety. 

Wilmot  Early  Red  (F). — Mentioned  by  Fuller  as  an  old  English 
variety. 

Winant. — A  seedling  raised  in  New  Jersey.  Introduced  by  Frank 
Ford  &  Son,  of  Ravenna,  Ohio.  Said  to  resemble  Thwack. 

Woodward  (F). — One  of  Dr.  Brinckle's  seedlings. 

Woodward  Red  Globe  (F). — Fuller  speaks  of  this  as  an  old  Eng- 
lish variety  cultivated  in  England  about  forty  years  previous. 

Worthy. — Introduced  by  J.  H.  Hale.    Hardy,  early,  productive. 


202  Bush-Fruits 

Yellow  Antwerp  (White  Antwerp,  Double-bearing  Yellow)  (F). — 
Canes  and  fruit  yellow.  A  variety  long  known. 

Yellow  Chili  (Chili  Monthly)  (F).— A  French  variety  mentioned 
by  Fuller,  having  little  value. 

Recommended  varieties. — Cuthbert  is  still  far  in  the  lead 
as  a  market  red  raspberry,  being  widely  grown  the  coun- 
try over.  Marlboro  is  popular  along  Lake  Erie  and  Her- 
bert in  the  Hudson  River  Valley,  while  Loudon  is  still 
grown  for  market  in  some  localities.  Ranere  has  been 
gaining  ground  rapidly  in  recent  years,  especially  in  New 
Jersey.  Sunbeam  and  Ohta  are  especially  adapted  to  the 
trying  climate  of  the  northern  prairie  states.  June  is 
promising  as  a  very  early  variety  in  New  York. 

Columbian  is  now  the  leading  variety  in  the  hybrid 
group.  Royal  Purple  is  a  newer  claimant  for  public  favor 
in  this  class. 


CHAPTER  VIII 
VARIETIES  OF  BLACKBERRIES  AND  DEWBERRIES 

BLACKBERRIES  and  dewberries  are  recent  in  cultivation. 
In  many  parts  of  the  country  they  are  still  to  be  found 
wild  in  such  abundance  that  there  is  little  incentive  to 
grow  them.  Having  been  developed  from  native  species, 
the  number  of  varieties  is  not  so  great  as  with  the  rasp- 
berries. There  has  been  some  falling  off  in  the  area  de- 
voted to  these  fruits  in  recent  years  in  the  eastern  states 
as  shown  by  census  statistics,  but  on  the  Pacific  coast 
their  cultivation  has  increased.  This  is  apparently  due 
to  the  introduction  of  the  loganberry  and  its  popularity. 
While  typically  distinct,  the  dividing  line  between  black- 
berries and  dewberries  is  not  well  defined,  many  inter- 
mediate forms  occurring  which  pass  in  easy  grades  from 
one  to  the  other. 

THE   BLACKBERRIES 

The  blackberry  family  is  exceedingly  variable.  Within 
the  limits  of  species  properly  called  blackberries  and 
dewberries  may  be  found  an  almost  endless  variety  of 
forms.  Little  wonder  that  it  has  offered  a  fertile  field 
for  the  species-maker.  With  specimens  at  hand  he 
may  name  and  describe  form  after  form  to  his  heart's 
content.  But  when  he  comes  to  visit  them  in  their  na- 

203 


204  Bush-Fruits 

live  haunts,  rather  than  in  the  herbarium,  he  is  likely 
to  find  them  mingling  and  intermingling,  varying  and 
shading,  even  crossing  and  recrossing,  in  the  greatest 
freedom  and  abandon,  in  utter  disregard  for  his  carefully 
defined  types. 

The  cultivated  American  blackberry  is  a  product  of 
this  intermingling  of  types.  So  confused  is  its  origin 
that  to  attempt  to  classify  varieties  with  reference  to  the 
particular  species  from  which  they  have  sprung  is  well- 
nigh  impossible,  and  certainly  not  worth  the  while.  Even 
to  separate  the  blackberries  from  the  dewberries  is  not 
easy,  for  they  too  intermingle  to  a  greater  or  less  extent, 
passing  in  easy  grades  from  one  to  the  other.  Probably 
the  foundation  species  for  the  greater  number  of  varieties 
is  the  one  now  known  as  Rubus  argutus,  Link.  This  is  a 
rather  stiff,  erect  form  with  very  prickly  or  thorny  canes, 
the  thorns  extending  to  the  stems  and  ribs  of  the  leaves; 
flower-clusters  short,  usually  free  from  glands.  Found 
from  Canada  to  North  Carolina  and  Iowa.  Rubus  flor- 
idus,  Tratt.,  is  a  taller-growing  plant,  with  decumbent  or 
recurving  branches  and  stout  curved  prickles.  The 
flower-clusters  are  loose  and  leafy,  bearing  only  a  few 
flowers,  the  fruit  being  long,  with  small  drupelets.  This 
form  occurs  from  Virginia  southward  and  westward. 
Rubus  frondosus,  Bigel.,  is  of  medium  height  with  mostly 
straight  prickles;  the  leaflets  are  broad  and  hairy  beneath, 
the  flower-clusters  short,  hairy,  with  only  a  few  simple 
leaves  or  bracts  intermingled.  Rubus  allegheniensis, 
Porter,  is  a  mountain  form  of  medium  height,  with  moder- 
ately curved  prickles,  leaflets  glandular-pubescent  be- 
neath, flower-clusters  long,  glandular-hairy  but  not 


The  Blackberries  205 

leafy.  Fruit  usually  long,  thimble-shaped,  rather  small, 
narrowing  toward  the  tip :  drupelets  small  and  numerous. 
Another  mountain  form  common  in  the  Allegheny  region 
is  Rubus  canadensis,  Linn.  (R.  Millspaughii,  Brit.)  This 
is  a  tall  nearly  thornless  species  bearing  short  thick  berries, 
jet  black  in  color  but  more  sour  than  the  lowland  types. 
This  species  appears  not  to  have  been  brought  into  cul- 
tivation. 

The  blackberry  of  the  garden  is  little  more  than  a  child 
of  the  brush-land  and  forest,  forced  into  domestication, 
and  all  of  the  above  wild  types,  with  the  exception  of  the 
last  mentioned,  appear  to  have  contributed  to  different 
varieties  now  under  cultivation.  That  the  smooth  moun- 
tain berry  is  not  also  included  is  doubtless  the  result 
of  accident  rather  than  purpose.  It  is  a  productive  type 
in  its  wild  state;  its  glossy  black  fruit  is  attractive  and 
often  large,  while  its  comparative  freedom  from  thorns 
is  a  point  in  its  favor.  These  qualities  offer  something  of 
promise  to  be  combined  with  the  higher  quality  of  fruit 
found  among  other  types.  In  its  wild  state  this  mountain 
berry  ripens  later  than  other  blackberries,  partly  due  to 
elevation  at  least.  It  reaches  its  greatest  perfection  in  the 
high  mountains  of  the  Appalachian  system.  It  is  often 
found  in  dense  forests,  where  the  canes  sometimes  reach 
a  height  of  fifteen  or  eighteen  feet,  and  are  as  thornless 
and  smooth  as  a  willow  twig.  In  such  localities  the  fruit 
is  said  to  be  greatly  appreciated  by  the  mountain  bears, 
which  are  enabled  to  draw  down  the  smooth  canes  and 
fatten  upon  the  berries  for  their  long  hibernating  sleep 
during  winter. 

The  sand  blackberry,  Rubus  cuneifolius,  Pursh,  found 


206  Bush-Fruits 

in  the  southern  states,  was  formerly  thought  to  have  been 
the  parent  of  at  least  one  cultivated  variety,  but  Bailey 
now  believes  that  the  species  has  not  entered  into  the 
development  of  the  garden  berry.  This  is  a  short,  stiff 
plant  covered  with  strong  hooked  thorns,  with  leaves 
which  are  woolly  white  beneath. 

History  and  Future  of  the  Blackberry 

The  blackberry  or  bramble  of  Europe  appears  to  have 
been  little  prized  as  a  fruit-bearing  plant.  It  is  occasion- 
ally mentioned  as  useful  for  tarts  or  similar  articles  of  diet, 
especially  if  apples  are  added  to  give  spice  and  flavor. 
The  fruit  is  evidently  inferior  in  flavor  and  quality  to  that 
of  our  own  species.  It  is  doubtless  chiefly  due  to  this  fact 
that  the  blackberry  of  cultivation  has  been  developed  from 
American  types. 

The  following  account  of  blackberry  history  is  quoted 
from  an  article  at  one  time  contributed  by  the  writer  to 
"The  American  Garden." 

In  its  early  history,  other  qualities  seem  to  have  been  considered 
more  important  than  its  fruit.  According  to  Pliny,  the  ancients  were 
taught  by  means  of  the  bramble  bush  how  to  propagate  trees  by 
layers.  It  was,  no  doubt,  held  in  greatest  esteem,  however,  for  its 
supposed  medicinal  qualities.  "The  berries,"  says  Pliny,  "are  the 
food  of  man,  and  have  a  dessicative  and  astringent  virtue,  and  serve 
as  a  most  appropriate  remedy  for  the  gyms  and  inflammation  of 
the  tonsils."  Both  the  flowers  and  berries  were  thought  by  the 
ancients  to  be  remedies  against  even  the  most  venomous  serpents. 
Pliny  further  states  that  "the  juice  pressed  out  of  young  shoots,  and 
reduced  to  the  consistency  of  honey,  by  standing  in  the  sun,  is  a 
singular  medicine  taken  inwardly,  or  applied  outwardly,  for  all 


History  and  Future  of  the  Blackberry        207 

diseases  of  the  mouth  and  eyes,  as  well  as  for  the  quinsy."  The  roots, 
boiled  in  wine,  were  esteemed  one  of  the  best  astringents  by  Roman 
physicians,  and  used  in  all  diseases  of  the  mouth.  The  leaves, 
pounded  and  applied  to  ringworms  and  ulcers,  were  said  to  bring 
speedy  relief.  Boerhave,  a  renowned  physician  at  the  beginning  of 
the  last  century,  affirms  that  the  roots,  dug  in  February  or  March 
and  boiled  with  honey,  are  an  excellent  remedy  against  dropsy. 
In  a  work  entitled  "A  Niewe  Herball,  or  Historic  of  Plantes,"  first 
written  by  D.  Rembert  Dodoen,  physician  to  the  German  emperor, 
and  afterward  translated  into  French,  then  from  French  into  English 
by  Gerard  Dewes,  in  1578,  the  "nature"  of  the  blackberry  is  set 
forth  as  follows:  "The  tender  springes  and  new  leaves  of  the  Bramble 
are  colde  and  drie  almost  in  the  thirde  degree,  and  astringent  or 
binding,  and  so  is  the  unripe  fruite.  The  ripe  fruite  is  somewhat 
warme  and  astringent,  but  not  so  much  as  the  unrype  fruite."  Then 
are  given  a  long  list  of  "vertues,"  among  which  are  the  following: 
"They  do  also  fasten  the  teeth,  when  the  mouth  is  washed  with  the 
juyce  or  decoction  thereof.  The  unripe  fruite  is  good  for  the  same 
purpose,  to  be  used  after  the  same  manner."  "The  leaves  be 
stamped  &  with  good  effect  are  applyed  to  the  region  or  place  of 
the  stomacke  against  the  trembling  of  the  hart,  the  payne  &  loose- 
ness or  ache  of  the  stomacke."  It  is  to  be  feared  that  Pliny  and 
others  of  these  old  writers  do  not  rank  high  as  medical  authorities 
at  the  present  day,  yet  the  plant  and  fruit  of  the  blackberry  are  still 
employed  in  various  ways,  with  very  gratifying  results,  in  the  treat- 
ment of  disease. 

According  to  legend,  the  origin  of  the  disagreeably  thorny  char- 
acter of  the  blackberry,  as  told  by  Waterton,  was  on  this  fashion: 
"The  Cormorant  was  once  a  wool  merchant.  He  entered  into  part- 
nership with  the  Bramble  and  the  Bat,  and  they  freighted  a  large 
ship  with  wool;  she  was  wrecked  and  the  firm  became  bankrupt. 
Since  that  disaster  the  Bat  skulks  about  till  midnight  to  avoid  his 
creditors,  the  Cormorant  is  forever  diving  into  the  deep  to  dis- 
cover its  foundered  vessel,  while  the  Bramble  seizes  hold  of  every 
passing  sheep  to  make  up  its  loss  by  stealing  the  wool." 

Perhaps  it  would  be  casting  discredit  on  the  worthy  ancestors 
who  braved  so  many  dangers  in  the  settlement  of  our  country,  to 


208  Bush-Fruits 

charge  them  with  undue  conservatism,  yet  it  can  hardly  be  doubted 
that  men  who  would  brave  the  uncertainties,  not  to  say  terrors,  of 
an  ocean  voyage  on  an  almost  unknown  sea,  and  the  settlement  of 
a  new  country  peopled  with  savages  of  unknown  traits  and  ten- 
dencies, rather  than  surrender  ideas  which  they  cherished,  would 
not  be  quick  to  form  new  ones.  Hence  we  can  readily  conclude 
that  the  blackberry  of  America  was  to  them  much  what  the  black- 
berry of  England  had  been — simply  a  wild  bramble,  to  be  destroyed 
when  possible  and  replaced  by  something  better,  and  whose  fruit  was 
to  be  gathered  at  will.  Moreover,  to  cultivate  a  fruit  which  was  so 
readily  obtained  in  abundance  for  the  gathering,  would  have  been 
folly  to  them,  when  many  other  things  conducive  to  their  safety 
and  comfort  were  so  much  more  needed.  As  time  went  on,  however, 
this  gratuitous  feast  of  nature,  provided  for  the  fostering  of  ''infant 
industries,"  began  to  diminish,  and  the  demand  of  growing  cities 
for  increased  quantities  of  fruit  doubtless  led  to  the  idea  of  cultivat- 
ing the  blackberry  among  the  rest.  Just  when  this  state  of  affairs 
was  reached  it  is  impossible  to  say,  but  evidently  not  until  quite  late 
in  our  national  development,  for  the  blackberry  does  not  seem  to 
have  begun  to  receive  much  notice  or  to  be  talked  about  in  the 
horticultural  journals  until  about  1850.  From  "  Hovey's  Magazine 
of  Horticulture,"  it  appears  that  Capt.  Josiah  Lovett,  of  Beverly, 
Mass.,  figured  prominently  in  introducing  it  to  cultivation.  Even 
then,  as  with  many  other  good  and  useful  things,  first  impressions 
were  unfavorable.  Of  course,  the  first  effort  would  naturally  be  to 
bring  plants,  which  bore  the  most  promising  fruit,  from  the  woods  and 
clearings  and  set  them  in  the  garden.  This  attempt  to  tame  the  wild 
protege  of  the  forest  did  not  often  prove  satisfactory.  These  plants 
evidently  did  not  take  kindly  to  the  refinements  of  civilization,  and 
longed  for  their  free  and  easy  life  of  the  wood.  Capt.  Lovett  reports 
repeated  failures  in  trying  to  get  good  berries  by  this  method.  He 
persevered  for  five  years,  but  at  last  gave  up  in  despair  about  1840, 
and  surrendered  this  wild  gypsy  of  the  fruits  to  its  native  haunts 
as  untamable.  In  spite  of  these  discouraging  results  he  evidently 
did  not  abandon  the  dream  of  a  cultivated  blackberry,  for  Downing 
gives  him  the  credit  of  having  introduced  the  Dorchester,  which  in 
time  proved  so  valuable,  although  according  to  Marshall  P.  Wilder, 


The  Dewberries  209 

as  reported  in  the  "Transactions  of  the  Massachusetts  Horticultural 
Society"  for  1883,  p.  129,  it  was  brought  to  notice  by  Eliphalet 
Thayer,  who  first  exhibited  it  before  that  society,  August  7,  1841. 

But  these  first  introductions  to  cultivation,  the  Dorchester  and 
Lawton,  were  not  calculated  to  bring  swift  and  lasting  popularity 
to  the  blackberry  as  a  garden  fruit,  for  although  large  and  attrac- 
tive, their  habit  of  turning  black  before  they  are  ripe  nearly  always 
led  to  their  being  gathered  and  eaten  while  green,  and  their  conse- 
quent condemnation  as  sour  and  poor  in  quality.  Moreover,  their 
culture,  being  little  understood,  led  to  frequent  failures  and  unsatis- 
factory results,  while  their  propensity  to  persist  and  spread,  aided 
by  their  unmerciful  thorns,  conspired  to  render  them  a  terror  to 
many  timid  gardeners.  In  spite  of  all  this,  the  blackberry  has 
steadily  pushed  its  way  into  prominence,  until  it  is  to-day  one  of 
our  most  satisfactory  and  profitable  crops.  Here,  as  with  all  other 
fruits,  we  are  far  from  attaining  perfection.  We  have  no  ideal  variety. 
If  we  demand  the  best  in  point  of  hardiness,  we  must  yield  in  size 
and  quality;  if  delicacy  of  flavor  is  the  desideratum,  something  else 
will  be  deficient.  Yet  to  stand  by  a  well-grown  row  of  Early  Cluster, 
for  example,  to  see  its  glistening  sprays  of  glossy  black  hanging  in 
such  graceful  profusion,  to  gather  its  magnificent  berries  and  to  test 
their  sweet  and  melting  quality,  just  like  those  finest  and  ripest  ones 
we  used  now  and  then  to  chance  upon  in  some  wooded  nook  which 
everybody  else  had  missed,  is  to  forget  for  the  time  being  that  any- 
thing further  is  to  be  desired  in  a  blackberry.  Still  we  have  reason 
to  hope  that  the  achievements  of  this  energetic  and  vigorous  porno- 
logical  youth  are  but  an  omen  of  what  is  yet  to  come. 


THE   DEWBERRIES 

The  dewberries  are  distinguished  from  the  blackberries 
chiefly  by  their  trailing  habit  of  growth,  their  early  ripen- 
ing, the  character  of  the  flower-cluster,  and  the  method  of 
propagation.  The  true  dewberries  bear  but  few  flowers 
in  each  cluster,  the  clusters  are  cymose,  the  center  flower 


210  Bush-Fruits 

opening  first,  and  the  flowers  are  few  and  scattered,  gen- 
erally borne  on  long  and  ascending  pedicels,  or  stems, 
which  tend  to  raise  both  flowers  and  fruit  well  toward  the 
end  of  the  shoot.  In  the  blackberries  the  opposite  of  these 
characters  is  found.  The  clusters  are  corymbose  or  race- 
mose, the  outer  flowers  generally  opening  first,  and  the 
flowers  are  borne  in  rather  dense  clusters,  the  pedicels 
being  shorter,  as  a  rule,  and  standing  more  nearly  at  right 
angles  to  the  main  stem  of  the  cluster.  The  dewberries 
propagate  by  means  of  tips,  while  the  blackberries  propa- 
gate by  suckers,  a  point  of  much  practical  importance,  in 
cultivation.  Even  this  important  point  of  distinction 
is  not  absolute.  The  common  varieties  of  blackberries 
will  occasionally  root  at  the  tips,  as  I  have  personally 
seen.  Despite  these  characters,  forms  are  found,  both 
wild  and  in  cultivation,  so  intermediate  in  character  as  to 
make  them  very  difficult  to  classify.  These  intermediate 
forms  are  of  special  interest,  and  illustrate  in  a  remark- 
able way  the  possibilities  of  admixture  in  the  genus. 
Many  of  them  are  very  productive,  in  apparent  de- 
fiance of  the  pronouncements  of  science,  which  are  that 
hybrids  should  be  deficient  in  fruitfulness. 

The  most  important  type  in  cultivation  is  that  repre- 
sented by  the  northern  dewberry.  In  this  group  four 
species  are  now  recognized  by  Bailey  (Cyclopedia  of 
Horticulture).  First  is  the  one  long  known  as  Rubus 
canadensis,  later  thought  to  be  the  R.  villosus  of  Aiton 
but  now  given  the  name  R.  procumbens,  Muhl.  This  is  the 
prevailing  type  of  the  northeastern  states,  except  along 
the  coast,  reaching  southward  to  Virginia.  It  is  a  running 
plant  with  canes  usually  bearing  stout,  recurved  prickles, 


The  Dewberries  211 

the  leaflets  narrowed  at  the  base  and  nearly  or  quite 
glabrous,  the  flowers  being  borne  in  the  upper  axils. 

Rubus  invisus,  Brit.,  occurs  in  the  same  region  as  the 
above  species,  but  its  canes  are  less  prickly,  strong,  terete 
and  somewhat  ascending,  often  making  mounds  of  growth; 
the  leaflets  are  large  and  the  inflorescence  dichotomous. 
R.  Bailey  anus,  Brit.,  is  more  slender,  not  much  prickly, 
with  leaflets  that  are  mostly  broad  at  the  base  and  pubes- 
cent beneath,  the  leaVes  or  bracts  in  the  flower-clusters 
being  simple.  This  is  the  form  described  by  Torrey  and 
Gray  as  R.  villosus  var.  humifusus.  R.  Enslenii,  Tratt, 
occurs  from  Nantucket  and  Long  Island  southward  on  the 
Coastal  Plain.  This  is  a  soft-caned,  weak  plant,  bearing 
small,  loose  berries  and  has  probably  not  entered  into  the 
make-up  of  the  cultivated  varieties. 

The  southern  dewberry,  R.  trivialis,  Michx.,  Fig.  24,  is  a 
variable  type,  chiefly  distinguished  from  the  northern 
forms  by  having  the  long,  prostrate  canes  armed  with 
stout  prickles,  which  are  sometimes  dark  purple  in  color; 
reddish  bristles  also  occur  at  times.  The  leaves  are  firm, 
smooth,  and  practically  evergreen,  usually  bearing  stout 
prickles  on  the  petioles  and  midribs.  The  flowers  are  usu- 
ally borne  on  simple,  more  or  less  prickly  peduncles.  The 
fruit  is  sometimes  excellent  but  often  dry  and  seedy.  This 
is  the  common  dewberry  of  the  southern  states,  ranging 
^om  Virginia  to  Florida  and  Texas,  often  becoming  a  pest 
a  old  fields. 

The  California  dewberry,  R.  vitifolius,  Cham.  & 
Schlecht.,  Fig.  25,  is  the  western  representative  of  the  wild 
dewberry  family.  It  is  a  variable  and  perplexing  species. 
The  canes  are  long  and  trailing,  or  sometimes  partially 


Fig.  24.  Rubus  trivialis  (Xz/s). 


The  Dewberries 


213 


Fig.  25.  Rubus  mtifolius  ( X2/s). 

erect,  with  slender  prickles.  Leaves  partially  evergreen, 
leaflets  broad,  coarsely  toothed,  light  green  and  pubescent 
above  and  beneath,  other  parts  being  more  or  less  densely 
covered  with  straight  bristles  and  glandular-tipped  hairs. 
The  fruit  is  black,  oblong,  sweet,  with  pubescent  drupelets. 


214  Bush-Fruits 

Some  forms  are  perfect  flowered;  in  others  the  bloom  is 
staminate  with  abortive  pistils  and  still  others  are  pistil- 
late, with  only  rudimentary  stamens. 

Just  how  far  this  wild  type  has  entered  into  the  cul- 
tivated berries  of  the  Pacific  Slope  seems  to  be  unde- 
termined. Two  or  three  varieties  known  to  belong  to  it 
have  been  introduced  but  have  not  become  prominent. 
The  Loganberry,  Mammoth,  and  Phenomenal  have  been 
supposed  to  have  sprung  from  this  species  through  hy- 
bridization, but  their  botanical  origin  is  still  a  matter  of 
doubt,  some  botanists  believing  that  they  represent  a 
distinct  species  not  yet  well  known  in  the  wild  state. 

The  position  of  the  dewberry  as  a  cultivated  fruit  is 
discussed  elsewhere  and  need  not  be  here  considered.  Ex- 
clusive of  the  loganberry  and  other  Pacific  Coast  types 
it  has  not  attained  a  prominent  place  in  American  pomol- 
ogy. 

CULTIVATED     VARIETIES     OF     BLACKBERRIES     AND 
DEWBERRIES 

The  following  list  includes  the  names  of  blackberries 
and  dewberries  known  to  have  been  introduced  into  cul- 
tivation in  the  United  States.  Those  more  properly  known 
as  dewberries  are  followed  by  the  letter  (D).  Those 
known  to  be  of  the  hybrid  blackberry-dewberry  type  by 
the  letter  (H).  To  draw  sharp  dividing  lines  is  difficult 
and  no  exact  classification  is  attempted. 

Adair  Claret. — Originated  with  D.  S.  Adair,  Hawesville,  Ky. 
Plant  not  quite  hardy.  Fruit  medium  size,  claret  color,  soft,  with 
a  mild,  pleasant  flavor. — Downing. 


Varieties  of  Blackberries  and  Dewberries      215 

Agawam. — Found  growing  wild  in  a  pasture  about  1865  or  1870, 
by  John  Perkins,  of  Ipswich,  Mass.  Plant  hardy,  vigorous,  and 
productive.  Fruit  oblong,  of  medium  size,  large,  black,  sweet,  and 
melting.  A  popular  variety. 

Albion. — Found  and  introduced  by  John  B.  Orange,  of  Albion,  111. 
Fruit  large,  oblong,  clear  pink,  sweet  and  good. 

Alger. — Originated  at  Cleveland,  Ohio.  Of  good  size,  oblong  in 
form.  Of  a  deep  claret  color;  sweet  and  rich. 

Allen. — Sent  out  for  trial  about  1894,  by  W.  B.  K.  Johnson,  Allen- 
town,  Pa.  Said  to  be  early  and  productive.  Fruit  glossy,  jet  black, 
not  fading;  flesh  firm,  but  juicy;  quality  good. 

Ambrosia. — Offered  by  A.  L.  and  H.  J.  Bradley,  of  Makanda,  111., 
as  an  extra-early  variety,  said  to  begin  ripening  with  the  red 
raspberries.  Claimed  to  be  exceptionally  hardy,  productive.  Fruit 
large,  jet  black,  not  turning  red  when  picked,  firm  and  of  high 
quality. 

Americus. — Received  at  the  office  of  the  United  States  Pomolo- 
gist  in  1894,  from  J.  H.  Langille,  Kensington,  Md.,  and  described 
in  the  report  for  that  year.  Thought  to  be  a  seedling  of  the  Early 
Harvest.  Stout,  with  flowers  in  rather  short,  erect,  downy  spikes. 
Fruit  irregular,  jet  black,  moderately  firm,  melting,  juicy  and  of 
good  quality,  ripening  soon  after  Early  Harvest. 

Ancient  Briton. — The  origin  of  this  variety  has  been  greatly  in 
doubt.  According  to  one  report  it  was  named  by  Robert  Hassell, 
of  Alderly,  Wisconsin,  who  received  it  from  England.  Another  report 
credits  it  with  being  a  Wisconsin  seedling,  found  by  one  A.  H.  Briton, 
for  whom  it  was  named,  the  name  later  becoming  changed  to  Ancient 
Briton.  The  plant  belongs  to  an  American  species  and  has  proved 
one  of  the  most  valuable  sorts  grown  in  Wisconsin,  being  the  favorite 
at  the  famous  Thayer  Fruit-Farm  at  Sparta.  Plants  sturdy,  hardy 
and  productive.  Fruit  long,  melting,  of  fine  flavor.  One  of  the  best 
varieties  where  it  succeeds. 

Auglwnbaugh  (D). — One  of  the  best  known  varieties  of  the  Western 
dewberry,  of  especial  interest  as  being  the  supposed  parent  of  the 
Loganberry.  It  was  propagated  and  sold  by  a  man  named  Aughin- 
baugh,  about  1875.  The  blossoms  are  pistillate,  hence  it  should  be 
planted  with  other  varieties  to  furnish  pollen.  The  fruit  is  said  to 


216  Bush-Fruits 

be  of  excellent  quality,  but  the  plant  is  a  weak  grower  and  unpro- 
ductive. 

Bagnard. — Said  to  be  as  hardy  as  Snyder  and  far  superior  in  qual- 
ity. Considered  one  of  the  best  by  S.  D.  Willard  of  Geneva,  N.  Y., 
at  one  time. 

Bangor. — A  variety  of  Maine  origin,  first  propagated  from  plants 
growing  on  the  farm  of  Henry  W.  Brown,  in  Newbury. 

Banlon  (Seedling). — A  variety,  said  to  be  from  Vermont,  which 
proved  very  hardy  in  Minnesota. — 'Minn.  Hort.  Soc.  Kept.,  1874  :  57. 

Barnard. — Said  to  be  a  seedling  of  the  wild  blackberries  of  Belmont 
county,  Ohio,  taken  to  Allamakee  county,  Iowa,  and  disseminated 
by  Mr.  Barnard.  A  popular  variety  in  northern  Illinois  and  Iowa, 
where  it  has  proved  very  hardy. 

Bartel  (D). — This  was  the  first  named  variety  of  dewberry.  It 
was  brought  to  notice  sometime  in  the  70's  by  Dr.  Bartel,  of  Huey, 
Clinton  county,  111.  The  plants  are  said  to  have  appeared  in  an  old 
cornfield  on  his  farm,  and  the  large  size  of  the  fruit  led  him  to  offer 
them  for  sale.  The  fruit  is  described  as  large,  rich  and  juicy. 

Bauer  (D). — A  variety  sent  out  from  Bauer's  nursery,  Judsonia, 
Ark.  Said  to  be  vigorous,  with  fine  fruit,  but  unproductive.  Prob- 
ably R.  trivialis. 

Black  Chief. — On  trial  at  the  Geneva  (N.  Y.)  Experiment  Station. 
Received  from  J.  H.  Haynes,  Delphi,  Ind. 

Black  Diamond  (D)  (Star,  Wonder,  Swing's  Wonder,  Atlantic). — 
Said  to  have  originated  with  George  H.  Liepe,  from  seed  of  the  old 
Evergreen.  Similar  to  the  Himalaya  in  habit  of  growth,  trailing 
the  first  year  but  more  upright  later,  the  canes  living  from  year  to 
year  at  the  base;  propagating  by  tips.  Leaves  green  till  late  in 
autumn,  free  from  rust.  Fruit  jet  black,  firm,  about  the  size  of 
Snyder,  ripening  very  late,  said  to  be  borne  in  clusters  something 
like  grapes. 

Blowers. — Said  to  have  been  found  by  a  woman  in  the  Chautauqua 
Grape  Belt  of  New  York.  Plant  upright,  hardy  except  in  the  extreme 
north.  Rust-resistant  and  exceedingly  productive.  Begins  ripen- 
ing in  July  and  continues  for  a  long  time.  Fruit  large,  jet  black,  a 
good  shipper  and  of  fine  quality. 

Bonanza. — Said  to  be  similar  to  Kittatinny,  but  hardier. 


Varieties  of  Blackberries  and  Dewberries      217 

Boston  High-Bush. — Mentioned.  Kept.  Calif.  Hort.  Soc.  1886, 
p.  234.  Dorchester  may  be  meant. 

Brandenburg. — Mentioned  in  Hovey's  Magazine,  1868,  p.  286. 

Brunton  Early. — An  early  variety  which  originated  in  Illinois. 
Similar  to  Early  Harvest  in  habit  of  growth.  Apparently  deficient 
in  pollen  production,  or  self-sterile,  and  unproductive  when  planted 
alone.  Of  little  value. 

Cape  May. — "Fruit  large,  black,  sweet." — Downing. 

Carlo. — Grown  at  the  Geneva  (N.  Y.)  Experiment  Station. 
Unpromising. 

Cherry  Valley. — Originated  near  Cherry  Valley,  111. — 111.  Hort.  Soc. 
Kept.  1882  : 284. 

Clark. ^Mentioned  in  The  Rural  New-Yorker  for  1897,  p.  598, 
as  received  from  Matthew  Crawford  the  spring  previous. 

Colonel  Wilder. — Introduced  by  John  B.  Orange,  and  named  in 
honor  of  Marshall  P.  Wilder.  Of  a  bright  cream  color,  large  size, 
oblong,  almost  pointed,  of  superior  flavor  and  quality.  Mr.  Orange 
regarded  this  as  the  most  valuable  of  his  white  varieties. — Hov. 
Mag.  1864  : 360. 

Crystal  White  (Orange's  Crystal). — Originated  and  introduced 
by  John  B.  Orange.  Upright,  with  strong,  green  spines,  lacking  in 
hardiness,  and  suckering  freely.  Fruit  large,  roundish  oval,  clear, 
rich  white  when  fully  ripe,  sweet,  of  good  flavor  and  ripening  early. 

Cumberland. — Formerly  known  about  Bridgeton,  N.  J. — Fuller. 

Cutter  Mulberry. — Introduced  by  G.  B.  Cutter,  Newton,  Mass., 
about  1859.  Fruit  long,  slender,  sweet. — Hov.  Mag.  1859  : 397. 

Dallas. — A  Texas  variety,  found  hardy,  vigorous,  productive  and 
reliable  there,  but  of  little  value  in  the  North. 

Dehring. — An  early  variety,  about  equal  to  Brunton  in  hardiness 
and  productiveness;  fruit  small. 

Doctor  Warder. — Originated  and  introduced  by  John  B.  Orange. 
Color  dark  ruddy  red,  quality  good. 

Dodge  Thornless. — Mentioned.    Agr.  of  Mass.,  1868-9,  p.  72. 

Dorchester  (Improved  High  Bush). — A  seedling  introduced  by 
Eliphalet  Thayer,  of  Dorchester,  Mass.,  who  first  exhibited  it  before 
the  Massachusetts  Horticultural  Society,  August  7,  1841.  It  was 
largely  brought  to  public  notice  by  Capt.  Josiah  Lovett,  of  Beverly, 


218  Bush-Fruits 

Mass.  Capt.  Lovett  had  previously  made  unsuccessful  attempts  to 
transplant  the  best  of  the  wild  bushes  to  his  garden,  but  after  obtain- 
ing this  variety,  turned  his  best  attention  to  it.  Samuel  Downer,  of 
Dorchester,  Mass.,  also  seems  to  have  been  connected  with  its  in- 
troduction. This  variety  is  of  special  interest  as  being  the  advance 
guard  of  all  the  blackberries  now  hi  cultivation,  since  it  was  the  first 
cultivated  variety.  It  is  a  very  upright  grower,  vigorous,  and  vi- 
ciously thorny.  Fruit  large,  oblong,  conic,  deep,  shining  black, 
nearly  as  large  as  Lawton,  longer,  with  rather  smaller  drupelets. 

Duncan  Falls. — Introduced  by  J.  C.  Neff,  Duncan's  FaUs,  Ohio. 
Upright,  vigorous;  fruit  large,  black. — Downing. 

Early  Cluster. — The  original  plant  of  this  variety  was  dis- 
covered about  1872,  among  Missouri  Mammoth,  on  the  farm  of 
Charles  W.  Starn,  in  Southern  New  Jersey,  where  it  attracted  at- 
tention from  its  early  and  profuse  bearing,  and  was  transplanted 
and  propagated  for  market.  It  is  a  moderate,  erect,  healthy  grower, 
hardy  and  extremely  productive.  The  fruit  is  medium  sized,  short- 
oblong,  shining  black,  sweet  and  of  fine  quality,  without  hard  or 
bitter  core..  The  entire  crop  ripens  within  a  few  days,  making  it  a 
desirable  early  market  berry.  Yet  the  variety  never  became  popular. 
Either  spurious  stock  was  sent  out  or  it  thrives  only  in  special 
localities.  I  have  never  seen  a  more  satisfactory  blackberry,  nor 
tasted  one  of  finer  quality,  than  the  Early  Cluster  as  I  have  known  it. 

Early  Harvest. — An  early  variety,  found  growing  wild  in  Illinois. 
Moderately  vigorous,  upright,  often  tender.  Canes  greenish,  with 
comparatively  few  thorns.  Fruit  small,  roundish  to  oblong,  greenish 
black,  soft,  juicy,  mild  and  pleasant.  Very  early. 

Egypt. — Mentioned.    Proc.  N.  J.  Hort.  Soc.  1900  : 192. 

Eldorado. — Originated  as  an  accidental  seedling  in  Preble  Co., 
Ohio,  near  a  village  of  that  name,  and  first  placed  under  cultivation 
about  1882.  Hardy  and  free  from  attacks  of  orange  rust.  Fruit 
large,  glossy  black,  holding  its  color  well,  juicy  and  of  excellent 
flavor.  A  popular  variety  both  for  the  home-garden  and  for  market 
in  many  localities. 

Colossal  (D). — A  sort  offered  by  L.  L.  May  &  Co.,  St.  Paul,  Minn. 

Erie  (Uncle  Tom). — Found  on  lands  of  L.  B.  Pierce,  of  Tallmage, 
Ohio,  in  1876.  Probably  a  seedling  of  the  Lawton.  The  variety  was 


Varieties  of  Blackberries  and  Dewberries      219 

sold  to  Matthew  Crawford,  in  1884,  he  in  turn  selling  it  to  J.  T. 
Lovett,  who  offered  it  for  sale  in  1886.  Mr.  Lovett  first  announced 
it  under  the  name  of  Uncle  Tom,  but  later  the  name  Erie  was  sub- 
stituted, which  is  the  only  one  under  which  it  was  offered  for  sale. 
A  strong,  spreading  grower,  very  thorny,  productive,  but  lacking 
in  hardiness  in  some  regions.  Season  intermediate.  Fruit  large, 
roundish  oval,  of  good  quality. 

Eureka  (H). — In  1876  William  Parry  selected  the  best  and  most 
perfect  berries  of  Wilson's  Early,  grown  by  the  side  of  Dorchester, 
planted  them,  grew  the  seedlings  together  for  four  years,  then  se- 
lected the  best,  which  was  named  Eureka,  the  others  being  de- 
stroyed.— Mich.  Hort.  Soc.  Kept.  1886  : 407. 

Excelsior. — Productive,  of  fair  quality,  good  size,  season  medium; 
lacks  hardiness. — Mass.  Hatch  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  6  :  4. 

Fairfax  (D) . — Sent  out  by  C.  A.  Tiber,  of  Fairf ax  county,  Virginia, 
who  found  it  wild  on  a  stony,  unproductive  hillside  in  that  county. 

Farley. — Origin  unknown.  Fruit  nearly  as  large  as  New  Rochelle, 
sweet,  and  earlier. — Horticulturist. 

Felton. — Introduced  by  Oscar  Felton,  Camden,  N.  J.  Rather 
spreading;  fruit  large,  long,  sweet  and  good. — Fuller. 

Ford  No.  1. — On  trial  at  the  Geneva  (N.  Y.)  Experiment 
Station. 

Freed. — A  variety  originated  about  1871  by  George  Freed,  of 
Columbiana  Co.,  Ohio.  Rank  and  hardy,  but  a  shy  bearer. 

French  Lawton. — A  selected  and  improved  strain  of  the  Lawton 
offered  by  W.  N.  Scarff  of  Ohio. 

Fruitland. — A  variety  from  Ohio.  Canes  strong,  upright,  grooved, 
with  greenish  red  bark.  Fruit  medium,  nearly  round,  with  medium 
large  grains,  sweet,  good. 

Gainor. — Large  and  productive,  but  not  hardy  enough  at  Ottawa, 
Canada. — Rept.  Can.  Exp.  Farms,  1889  :  95. 

Gardena  (D). — Name  from  Gardena,  California.  Thought  to  be 
a  seedling  of  Premo.  Very  early,  being  the  first  to  ripen  and  coming 
on  very  fast.  Large,  jet  black  and  firm.  Plant  healthy,  resisting 
frost  well.  Successful  in  Southern  California. 

Geer  (D). — A  variety  discovered  by  F.  L.  Wright,  in  a  wood-lot 
belonging  to  a  Mrs.  Geer,  of  Plainfield,  Livingston  Co.,  Michigan. 


220  Bush-Fruits 

It  was  first  brought  under  cultivation  in  1887.  Said  to  be  productive, 
though  small  in  fruit. 

General  Grant  (D). — Introduced  by  Charles  A.  Green,  of  Rochester, 
N.  Y.,  in  1885  or  1886.  It  came  from  M.  W.  Broyles,  somewhere  in 
Tennessee.  It  possessed  little  value. 

Golden  Queen  (D). — Mentioned  as  a  new  dewberry  of  golden 
yellow  color,  large  and  productive.  Hort.  Gleaner,  1898  :  100. 

Grape. — Mentioned  as  a  variety  with  strong  canes  and  large  fruit. 
Am.  Pom.  Soc.  Kept.  1860  :  76. 

Guadalupe  (D). — Found  wild  by  Otto  Locke  of  New  Braunfels, 
Texas.  Vigorous,  productive,  early,  large,  long,  sweet  and  showy. 

Haley. — A  dwarf  variety,  found  in  Franklin  Co.,  Kansas.  Brought 
under  cultivation  by  E.  Haley,  about  1880. 

Haupt  (H). — Thought  to  be  a  blackberry-dewberry  cross.  Very 
thorny.  Must  be  cross-pollinated.  Rural  New-Yorker,  1914  :  252. 

Hess.— Mentioned.    Mich.  Expt.  Sta.  Bull.  206  :  59. 

Himalaya-Berry. — A  very  rank  growing  plant,  woody  at  the  base 
and  partially  perennial  in  mild  climates.  Successfully  grown  on  the 
Pacific  Coast  but  valueless  in  the  East,  where  it  lacks  hardiness, 
blooms  late  and  does  not  pollinate  itself,  producing  imperfect  berries. 

Himinan—  Mentioned.    Proc.  N.  J.  Hort.  Soc.  1900  :  192. 

Hoag. — Originated  many  years  ago  with  Charles  R.  Hoag,  one 
of  the  original  members  of  the  Minnesota  Horticultural  Society, 
who  then  lived  at  Kasson,  Dodge  Co.,  Minn.  The  variety  was  named 
for  him  by  the  society. 

Holcomb. — First  brought  to  public  notice  at  one  of  the  weekly 
exhibitions  of  the  Hartford  Co.  (Conn.)  Horticultural  Society,  in 
the  summer  of  1855,  by  E.  A.  Holcomb,  of  Granby,  Conn.  Fruit  of 
fine  appearance  and  good  flavor,  ripening  early. 

Honey  Careless. — Offered  by  Bradley  Brothers  of  Illinois  as  pro- 
ductive, hardy  and  a  rampant  grower,  requiring  staking  or  close 
pruning.  Fruit  large,  jet  black,  coreless  and  delicious;  ripening  with 
Early  Harvest. 

Hoosac  Thornless. — Found  in  the  Hoosac  Mountains  of  Massa- 
chusetts. Its  chief  recommendation  is  the  absence  of  thorns. 
Fruit  not  large,  but  said  to  be  productive  and  of  good  quality. 

Humboldt  (D). — A  writer  in  The  Rural  New-Yorker  for  1896, 


Varieties  of  Blackberries  and  Dewberries      221 

p.  574,  mentions  this  as  having  been  selected  from  the  wild  black- 
berry of  California,  and  describes  it  as  a  rampant  grower  and  abun- 
dant bearer,  ripening  with  Hansell  raspberry,  a  month  before  the 
Early  Harvest  blackberry.  Fruit  jet  black,  one  and  one-half  inches 
long  by  one  inch  thick,  in  selected  specimens.  Flavor  "marvelous, 
delightfully  spicy,  with  a  wild-wood  aroma." 

Iceberg. — Plant  said  to  be  strong  and  productive.  Fruit  creamy 
white,  about  the  size  of  Snyder,  sweet  with  few  seeds.  Blooms  im- 
perfect and  need  to  be  pollinated  with  some  early  blooming  sort. 
Said  to  have  been  produced  by  three  generations  of  crossing,  Lawton 
being  one  of  its  grandparents. 

Idaho  (Climbing). — Mentioned  in  Hovey's  Magazine,  in  1868. 
It  may  have  been  the  cut-leaved  blackberry  or  a  western  dewberry. 

Johnson. — A  variety  from  Missouri,  said  to  be  adapted  to  the 
South,  and  popular  there. 

Jordan. — Introduced  by  J.  W.  Austin,  Pilot  Point,  Texas.  Fruit 
large,  ripening  ten  days  later  than  Dallas  and  Early  Harvest. 

Joy. — Originated  with  Jacob  Miehl,  in  Atlantic  County,  New 
Jersey.  Said  to  be  unusually  hardy,  productive  and  ripening  about 
midseason.  Fruit  large,  coal  black,  nearly  as  thick  as  long,  rich  and 
luscious. 

Kenoyer  (H). — Said  to  be  a  cross  between  Kittatinny  and  Early 
Harvest,  originating  in  Kansas.  Canes  strong,  resembling  Kittatinny 
in  wood  and  leaf.  Fruit  large  and  luscious,  ripening  about  with 
King.  Said  to  do  better  than  other  varieties  on  thin  clay  soil.  Said 
not  to  be  fully  self-fertile. 

Kentucky  White. — Introduced  by  D.  S.  Adah*,  Hawesville,  Ky. 
Plant  tender;  fruit  light  dirty  white,  imperfect. — Downing. 

King  (Early  King). — Plant  rather  small,  erect,  stiff,  with  several 
small  canes  from  each  stool,  making  a  thick  clump;  spines  large. 
Berry  of  medium  size,  oval,  irregular,  of  best  quality;  core  soft, 
ripe  as  soon  as  black.  A  week  earlier  than  Snyder.  Too  soft  for 
market.  Desirable  as  a  large,  early  berry. 

Kittatinny. — Found  in  the  town  of  Hope,  N.  J.,  near  the  base 
of  the  Kittatinny  Mountains,  and  introduced  by  E.  Williams  about 
1865.  Plant  fairly  hardy  and  productive.  Fruit  large  to  very  large, 
roundish  conical,  rich  glossy  black,  moderately  firm,  juicy,  sweet, 


222  Bush-Fruits 

and  well  flavored,  ripening  early  and  continuing  long  in  bearing. 
Very  susceptible  to  attacks  of  red  rust. 

Knox. — Plants  strong,  upright,  about  as  hardy  as  Kittatinny; 
fruit  large,  attractive  and  of  good  quality. 

La  Grange. — Offered  by  Bradley  Brothers  of  111.,  as  a  Russian 
product,  said  to  have  been  brought  from  that  country  and  fruited 
for  some  years  by  Mr.  La  Grange  of  Illinois.  Reputed  to  be  ex- 
tremely hardy  and  very  productive,  possessing  more  or  less  ever- 
bearing habits,  the  first  fruit  ripening  in  July  and  continuing  until 
September.  Fruit  said  to  be  large  and  free  from  core. 

Latimer  Seedling  (D). — Mentioned  as  on  trial  at  the  Geneva 
(N.  Y.)  Experiment  Station.  Received  from  J.  W.  Latimer,  Pleasan- 
ton,  Kansas. 

Lawton  (New  Rochelle,  Seacor's  Mammoth). — Found  by  Lewis 
A.  Seacor,  in  New  Rochelle,  N.  Y.,  and  brought  to  public  notice 
largely  by  William  Lawton,  of  the  same  place,  about  1848.  Vig- 
orous, hardy  and  productive,  with  strong  spines.  Fruit  very  large, 
oval,  and  intensely  black  when  fully  ripe.  It  is  then  juicy,  soft, 
and  sweet,  with  an  excellent  flavor,  but  when  gathered  too  early, 
very  sour  and  insipid.  This  was  the  second  blackberry  introduced 
into  cultivation,  and  it  did  much  to  popularize  the  fruit. 

Leader. — Originated  with  Daniel  S.  Kriebel,  in  Kenakee  Co., 
Illinois.  Said  by  him  to  be  large,  of  the  best  quality,  and  very  pro- 
ductive, never  failing  to  produce  a  crop. 

Lincoln. — A  wild  plant  found  about  two  miles  from  President 
Lincoln's  monument,  near  Springfield,  111.  Vigorous,  upright,  hardy, 
with  long  spines.  Fruit  large,  glossy,  of  good  quality. 

Loganberry  (D). — This  berry  originated  on  the  grounds  of  Judge 
J.  H.  Logan,  of  Santa  Cruz,  California,  in  1882,  from  seed  planted 
by  him  the  preceding  year.  A  full  account  of  its  origin,  as  given  by 
Judge  Logan  himself,  appears  in  Bulletin  45  of  the  Rhode  Island 
Experiment  Station.  It  seems  that  he  had  for  some  time  been  in- 
terested in  raspberries  and  blackberries,  and  had  growing  together 
the  Texas  Early  blackberry,  the  Aughinbaugh  dewberry,  and  an 
old  but  unknown  variety  of  red  raspberry,  resembling  the  Red  Ant- 
werp. In  August  of  1881  he  planted  seeds  of  the  Aughinbaugh,  ex- 
pecting to  get  a  cross  between  it  and  the  Texas  Early.  He  raised 


Plate  VI. 


The  loganberry. — The  fruit  about  one-half  natural  size; 
loading  crates  for  the  car,  in  Oregon. 


Varieties  of  Blackberries  and  Dewberries      223 

about  fifty  seedlings.  One  of  these,  the  Loganberry,  was  very  similar 
in  every  respect  to  the  parent,  but  much  larger  and  a  stronger  grower. 
At  the  time  the  seed  was  sown  Judge  Logan  did  not  think  it  possible 
to  cross  the  Aughinbaugh  with  the  raspberry,  but  the  characters 
developed  by  this  seedling  led  him  to  think  it  to  be  a  hybrid  between 
them.  Judge  Logan  states  that  out  of  thousands  of  plants  grown 
from  seeds  of  this  variety,  not  one  has  ever  shown,  so  far  as  he  is 
aware,  any  of  the  distinct  characteristics  of  either  parent,  not  one 
has  gone  back  to  the  original  type  of  either  the  raspberry  or  the 
Aughinbaugh,  though  most  of  them  are  inferior  to  the  original  plant. 
He  also  states  that  he  has  never  succeeded  in  crossing  the  Loganberry 
with  either  of  its  parents,  nor  with  seedling  crosses  between  the 
Aughinbaugh  and  the  Texas  blackberry. 

In  the  characters  of  the  plant,  and  in  the  shape  and  conforma- 
tion of  the  fruit  the  variety  is  essentially  like  the  Aughinbaugh, 
propagating  entirely  by  tips,  though  by  artificial  methods  they 
may  be  grown  from  hard-wood  cuttings.  The  core  remains  with 
the  fruit,  like  the  blackberry,  its  principal  resemblance  to  the 
raspberry  being  in  color  and  flavor,  although  the  dewberry  dom- 
inates in  flavor.  Judge  Logan  says:  "As  to  the  fact  of  the  plant 
being  a  hybrid  between  the  blackberry  and  the  raspberry,  of  course 
there  is  no  absolute  proof.  The  color,  with  the  distinct  raspberry 
flavor  of  the  fruit,  and  the  circumstances  under  which  it  originated, 
I  think  render  the  fact  of  such  a  cross  almost  certain."  The  fruit 
of  the  loganberry  is  illustrated  in  Plate  VI. 

The  other  plants  in  this  lot  of  seedlings  Judge  Logan  thinks  to 
have  been  crosses  between  the  Aughinbaugh  and  the  Texas,  as  he 
expected,  though  they  resemble  the  Aughinbaugh  in  most  of  their 
characteristics. 

The  hybrid  origin  of  the  loganberry  has  always  been  open  to 
question,  as  recognized  by  Judge  Logan  himself.  Recent  observa- 
tions reported  in  "The  Journal  of  Heredity"  for  November,  1916, 
indicate  that  the  type  is  not  the  result  of  a  cross  as  has  been  com- 
monly supposed.  W.  O.  Backhouse,  Economic  Botanist  to  the 
Argentine  Government,  reports  many  seedlings  grown  by  himself 
and  others  which  do  not  behave  as  seedlings  of  hybrids  may  be 
expected  to  behave.  This  is  in  harmony  with  Judge  Logan's  ex- 


224  Bush-Fruits 

perience.  Such  seedlings  appear  to  be  remarkably  constant, 
while  hybrids  between  the  loganberry  and  other  species  of  Rubus 
show  the  characteristics  common  among  hybrids  of  well-defined 
species. 

In  the  same  article,  C.I.  Lewis  of  the  Oregon  Experiment  Station 
is  quoted  as  saying  that  wild  plants  of  the  loganberry  type  are  oc- 
casionally found  in  Oregon,  California  and  Washington.  It  is  said 
to  be  so  common  on  Vancouver  Island  that  a  nurseryman  located 
there  reports  being  in  the  habit  of  going  to  the  woods  and  digging 
wild  plants  to  fill  orders  whenever  his  stock  became  depleted.  These 
observations  indicate  that  the  plant  represents  a  specific  type  of 
dewberry  and  that  the  plant  which  appeared  on  Judge  Logan's 
grounds  may  have  come  from  some  other  source  than  the  seed  which 
he  sowed.  Bailey,  who  has  been  over  the  subject  from  the  point  of 
view  of  botanical  characteristics,  states  in  the  "Standard  Cyclopedia 
of  Horticulture,"  1916,  that  it  is  "said  to  be  a  hybrid,"  "but  the 
botanical  origin  of  it  is  by  no  means  clear." 

The  loganberry  has  now  become  a  prominent  fruit  in  parts  of 
California  and  the  Pacific  Northwest,  but  does  not  succeed  in  the 
East.  It  is  so  easily  excited  into  growth  and  blooms  so  early  that 
it  is  nearly  always  injured  by  winter-killing  or  by  spring  frosts  in 
the  eastern  states.  (See  Plates  V  and  VI.) 

Lovett. — described  as  hardy,  vigorous  and  productive.  Fruit 
large,  mostly  globular,  drupes  large,  quite  firm,  though  juicy. 

Lucretia  (D). — Probably  the  best  known  of  all  the  dewberries. 
Found  by  a  soldier  in  the  Civil  War,  who,  being  stationed  near 
Beverly,  W.  Va.,  during  most  of  his  service,  returned  there  after 
the  war  in  search  of  a  wife,  and  acquired  this  dewberry  as  a 
perquisite  to  the  plantation  owned  by  her.  He  transplanted  some 
to  his  garden,  and  later  sent  plants  to  his  father  in  Ohio.  These  fell 
into  the  hands  of  B.  F.  Albaugh,  of  Covington,  Ohio,  who  named 
the  variety  and  introduced  it  to  the  trade.  As  sent  out,  the 
variety  was  greatly  mixed,  but  the  true  type  is  a  large  fruit,  pro- 
ductive, of  good  quality,  and  gives  satisfaction  wherever  the  dew- 
berry succeeds. 

Lucretia' s  Sister  (D). — Introduced  by  J.  B.  Treedway,  of  Brandt, 
Ohio,  about  1886.  Seems  to  possess  little  value. 


Varieties  of  Blackberries  and  Dewberries     225 

Luther. — Sent  out  by  R.  D.  Luther,  Fredonia,  N.  Y.  Said  to  be 
vigorous,  hardy  and  promising. 

Mammoth. — This  is  one  of  the  seedlings  grown  by  Judge  J.  H.  Logan, 
and  thought  by  him  to  be  a  cross  between  the  western  dewberry, 
Rubus  vitifolius,  and  the  Texas  blackberry.  It  appears  to  be  similar 
to  the  loganberry  in  type  and  habit  of  growth,  propagating  by  tips 
like  other  dewberries.  Apparently  it  is  similar  to  the  loganberry 
except  in  color.  The  berries  are  black,  very  large,  often  reaching 
two  inches  or  more  in  length  and  very  sour.  It  is  not  hardy  hi  the 
eastern  states  but  is  grown  extensively  in  the  Pacific  Northwest. 
The  canes  are  peculiar,  being  covered  with  small,  short  spines.  They 
start  very  early  in  the  season,  growing  thick  and  stout  until  about 
five  feet  high,  then  begin  to  trail,  growing  25  to  30  feet  in  the  season, 
rooting  at  the  tips  in  autumn.  The  leaves  are  partially  evergreen 
in  California. 

Mammoth  (D). — Two  varieties  of  the  eastern  dewberry  appear  to 
have  been  sold  under  this  name.  Cornell  Univ.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull. 
34  : 306. 

Mammoth  (Thompson's  Early  Mammoth)  (H). — Said  to  be  like 
Wilson  in  size  and  general  habit  of  growth,  but  a  few  days  earlier. 

Manatee  (D). — Introduced  by  Reasoner  Brothers,  Oneco,  Fla.,  in 
1889,  as  a  selected  strain  of  Rubus  trivialis.  Productive  in  that  state, 
ripening  its  fruit  in  April,  and  being  a  good  shipper.  Also  said  to 
succeed  in  California. 

Mason  Mountain. — Introduced  by  R.  O.  Thompson,  of  Nebraska, 
about  1865.  Fruit  large,  resembling  Lawton. 

Maxwell. — Introduced  by  A.  C.  Maxwell,  Chanute,  Kansas. 
Described  as  large,  sweet,  rich  and  melting.  Lacks  vigor,  hardiness 
and  productiveness  in  some  localities. 

Mayes  (Mayes  Hybrid,  Austin's  Improved)  (D). — Found  growing 
wild  in  Texas,  on  the  farm  of  John  Mayes,  some  time  about  1880. 
Mr.  Mayes  began  cultivating  the  variety,  and  found  it  to  improve 
under  cultivation.  Later  it  was  sent  out  by  J.  W.  Austin,  of  Pilot 
Point,  Texas,  as  Austin's  Improved.  The  plant  is  trailing  in  habit 
when  young,  but  is  said  to  become  stronger  and  somewhat  upright 
with  age.  It  propagates  by  tips  or  root-cuttings.  The  fruit  is  very 
large,  of  fine  appearance,  and  the  plants  are  prolific. 


226  Bush-Fruits 

Maynard  (H). — A  variety  found  growing  on  the  farm  of  C.  C.  May- 
nard,  at  Kincaid,  Kans.,  between  the  Lucretia  dewberry  and  the 
Early  Harvest  blackberry,  and  sent  out  for  trial  by  him  as  the 
Maynard  dewberry.  Berry  round,  composed  of  a  few  very  large, 
jet  black  drupelets,  ripening  with  the  blackberries;  many  berries 
in  a  cluster. 

,  McCracken. — Found  in  an  Illinois  wood  by  Mr.  McCracken. 

McDonald  (H). — A  variety  of  the  hybrid  type,  trailing  the  first  year 
but  sending  up  stronger  canes  afterward.  Prized  for  its  earliness, 
ripening  with  the  dewberries,  ahead  of  Early  Harvest.  Fruit  of  good 
quality,  resembling  the  dewberry  and  somewhat  larger  than  Early 
Harvest.  Should  be  planted  with  some  other  variety  to  insure 
pollination.  Mayes  dewberry  is  recommended  for  this  purpose. 

Mersereau. — Originated  with  J.  M.  Mersereau,  Cayuga,  N.  Y. 
Plant  vigorous,  upright,  resistant  to  disease  and  very  hardy.  Fruit 
large,  brilliant  black,  retaining  their  color  well  when  picked,  sweet, 
rich  and  melting,  ripening  with  Snyder.  Considered  one  of  the  de- 
pendable varieties  for  home  or  market. 

Minnewaski. — Originated  and  introduced  by  A.  J.  Caywood,  of 
Marlboro,  N.  Y.  A  good  grower,  erect,  branching,  strong.  Canes 
grooved,  and  thickly  covered  with  long,  straight  spines.  Hardy 
and  productive.  Fruit  clusters  large;  fruit  very  large,  long,  dull 
in  color,  and  somewhat  hairy  in  appearance,  of  fair  quality. 

Missouri  Mammoth. — Disseminated  from  Northern  Missouri. 

Mountain  Rose.— Mentioned.    Kan.  Hort.  Soc.  Kept.  1886,  p.  297. 

Nanticoke. — A  strong  grower,  productive,  rust-resistant  and  hardy. 
Fruit  large,  juicy,  rich  and  sweet.  Said  to  be  a  fine  table  berry  but 
not  firm  enough  to  stand  long  hauls.  Very  late.  Introduced  in  1912. 

Needham  White. — Introduced  to  notice  by  J.  Shed  Needham,  of 
Massachusetts,  sometime  about  1850.  Described  as  of  lilac  color. 
Canes  light  green  and  thickly  covered  with  short,  stiff,  green  hairs. 

Nevada. — Said  to  be  quite  productive,  of  fair  size  and  excellent 
quality. 

Never  Fail. — Thought  to  have  originated  in  central  Ohio.  One 
grower  says  that  "it  never  fails  to  produce  an  abundance  of  wood, 
but  always  fails  to  produce  fruit.  I  never  had  a  perfect  berry." 

Newman  Thornless  (H). — Discovered  by  Joseph  Newman,  Ulster 


Varieties  of  Blackberries  and  Dewberries      227 

county,  New  York.  Canes  of  moderate  growth,  and  thornless. 
Fruit  rather  large,  oval,  of  very  good  flavor.  According  to  one 
grower,  it  produces  few  thorns  and  fewer  berries. 

Ohmer. — A  seedling  found  by  N.  Ohmer,  of  Ohio.  Hardy,  healthy 
and  productive.  Fruit  large,  late,  firm,  no  core,  and  sweet  before  it 
becomes  soft.  Ripens  with  Taylor. 

Ozark. — •"  Better  than  either  Snyder  or  Taylor,  and  more  pro- 
ductive."—Mo.  Hort.  Soc.  Kept.  1883  : 79. 

Parish  Pink. — Of  no  more  value  than  other  white  varieties. 

Parker  Early. — Mentioned  in  Hovey's  Magazine,  1868,  p.  286. 

Parnell. — A  variety  originated  by  Mr.  Normand,  of  Marshville, 
Louisiana.  La.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  3,  2d  series. 

Peruvian  (Blackberry). — A  variety  of  the  common  European  black- 
berry. Growth  rank  and  dense;  canes  very  long  and  large.  Fruit 
small,  sweet,  lacking  in  character. 

Phenomenal  (Berry). — Produced  by  Luther  Burbank  and  claimed 
to  be  a  cross  between  the  California  dewberry  and  Cuthbert.  Similar 
to  the  loganberry  but  thought  to  be  superior  in  some  respects. 

Piasa.— Sent  out  by  E.  A.  Riehl,  Alton,  111. 

Piasasaw.— Mention.    Proc.  N.  J.  Hort.  Soc.  1900  :  192. 

Premo  (D). — An  early  variety  found  in  a  patch  of  Lucretia.  Much 
like  Lucretia  but  seven  to  ten  days  earlier.  Quality  and  size  uniform. 
Bloom  imperfect;  should  be  planted  with  Lucretia  or  Austin. 

Primus  (D). — A  variety  produced  by  Luther  Burbank,  of  Santa 
Rosa,  California,  and  said  by  him  to  be  a  cross  between  Rubus 
vilifolius  and  R.  cratcegifolius.  The  plant  is  said  to  be  a  strong  grower 
and  productive,  partially  trailing,  thickly  covered  with  short,  blunt 
prickles,  propagating  by  tips,  though  with  some  difficulty.  Fruit 
large,  long,  sweet,  resembling  the  raspberry  in  flavor,  adhering  to 
the  core  and  ripening  with  the  Hansell  raspberry.  Hard  to  pick  and 
too  soft  for  market.  A  colored  plate,  together  with  a  description, 
appears  in  the  report  of  the  United  States  Pomologist  for  1892. 

Purple-Fruited. — A  blackberry  reported  from  Orwell,  Ohio,  with 
ripe  fruit  purple  instead  of  black. — Meehan's  Monthly,  1895  :  185. 

Rathbun  (H).— Sent  out  by  A.  F.  Rathbun  of  Smith's  Mills,  N.  Y. 
Thought  to  be  a  cross  between  the  Wilson  blackberry  and  a  dew- 
berry, having  the  trailing  habit  of  the  dewberries  the  first  year, 


228  Bush-Fruits 

rooting  at  the  tips  and  producing  suckers  but  sparingly.  Hardy 
and  productive.  Fruit  large,  firm,  glossy  jet  black,  with  small  seeds, 
good  flavor  and  soft  core.  Ripens  about  with  Wilson. 

Red  Hybrid. — Mentioned  in  "Experiments  and  Public  Work  of 
the  Colorado  Agr.  College,"  1884,  p.  15. 

Reyner. — Canes  strong,  vigorous,  greenish,  with  few  prickles. 
Fruit  short,  irregular,  with  large  drupelets,  sweet  and  of  good  quality 
but  small. 

Robinson. — Originated  by  Willard  R.  Cisco,  of  Texas.  Described 
as  vigorous,  upright,  prolific,  large  and  of  good  quality.  Reported 
good  in  Texas  but  a  shy  bearer  in  the  North,  being  unable  to  stand 
a  temperature  much  below  zero. 

Rodgers  (D). — Offered  as  the  earliest  variety  in  Texas.  Large,  of 
excellent  quality  and  a  good  shipper. 

Role  Early.— Mentioned.    Rept.  Kan.  Hort.  Soc.  1887-8,  p.  482. 

Sable  Queen. — Introduced  by  J.  W.  Manning,  Reading,  Mass. 
Said  to  equal  Dorchester  or  New  Rochelle  in  size,  beauty  and  fruit- 
fulness. — Downing. 

Sadie. — Sent  out  from  Iowa  under  the  claim  that  its  cells  were  so 
arranged  as  to  resist  very  low  temperatures. 

Sanford.—Very  productive  but  too  small  to  be  of  value.  Fruit 
resembles  Snyder. 

Seedless  Blackberry. — Not  seedless,  but  the  seeds  are  small.  A 
good  family  berry  in  California.  R.  N.  Y.  1908  : 234. 

See  Early. — So  much  like  Brunton's  Early  that  it  may  be  the  same. 
IU.  Hort.  Soc.  1878  : 125. 

Simpson. — Mentioned.    Proc.  N.  J.  Hort.  Soc.  1900  : 192. 

Sinclair. — Mentioned  in  Hovey's  Magazine,  1868,  p.  285. 

Skagit  Chief  (D). — A  variety  sent  out  from  the  state  of  Washing- 
ton in  1891.  Supposed  to  be  R.  vitifolius. 

Snyder. — This  is  the  best  known  of  all  blackberries.  What  the 
Baldwin  is  to  the  apple  in  the  eastern  states  and  the  Ben  Davis 
in  the  West;  what  the  Concord  is  to  the  grape;  what  the  Lombard 
is  to  the  plum,  the  Snyder  is  to  the  blackberry.  It  originated  as  a 
chance  seedling,  on  or  near  the  farm  of  Henry  Snyder,  near  La  Porte, 
Ind.,  about  the  year  1851.  It  is  a  vigorous,  strong,  upright  grower; 
very  hardy  and  productive.  Fruit  of  poor  quality,  medium  size, 


Plate  VII.     Blackberry. — The  Snyder,  about  five-eighths  natural  size. 


Varieties  of  Blackberries  and  Dewberries      229 

nearly  globular,  of  good  appearance  and  a  good  shipper.  The  berries 
tend  to  turn  red  after  picking,  if  exposed  to  sunlight.  (Plate  VII.) 

Sorsby.—A  Texas  variety.    R.  N.  Y.  1914  :  765. 

Stayman  (Early). — Introduced  by  A.  J.  Stayman,  Leavenworth, 
Kansas.  Early,  of  excellent  quality  and  productive.  It  has  not 
proved  valuable  in  the  eastern  states. 

Sterling  Thomless  (H). — A  chance  seedling,  found  on  the  farm  of 
John  F.  Sterling,  Benton  Harbor,  Mich.,  in  a  field  where  Wilson 
and  Lawton  had  been  growing.  The  canes  resemble  those  of  Wilson 
in  size,  shape,  and  color,  but  are  comparatively  thornless.  The  fruit 
is  borne  in  cymose  clusters,  with  long  pedicels,  like  the  dewberries. 
Size  medium,  oblong,  with  large,  rather  loosely  set,  round  drupes. 

Stone  (Hardy) . — -An  Illinois  variety  of  spreading  habit,  with  fruit 
mostly  hidden  beneath  the  foliage.  Hardy,  maturing  its  wood  early 
on  suitable  soils.  Fruit  rather  small,  roundish,  black,  soft,  very 
juicy,  mild,  and  pleasant. 

Success. — Very  productive,  plants  moderately  vigorous,  canes  of 
a  greenish  color,  grooved,  bearing  abundant  prickles.  Berries 
medium  to  large,  roundish,  of  good  flavor. 

Taylor  (Taylor's  Prolific)  .—Introduced  by  Mr.  Taylor,  of  Spice- 
land,  Henry  Co.,  Indiana,  about  1867.  It  has  peculiar  greenish- 
yellow,  round  canes,  somewhat  slender  and  trailing  in  young  plants. 
Very  hardy,  vigorous  and  productive.  Fruit  large,  roundish-oblong 
or  thimble  shaped,  soft  in  texture,  juicy,  very  mild  and  rich.  It 
ripens  late,  about  two  weeks  after  Snyder.  This  is  one  of  the  best 
and  most  dependable  varieties  I  have  known. 

Tecumseh. — A  variety  of  the  Taylor  type  which  originated  in 
Western  Ontario. 

Texas  (Early)  (Crandall,  Crandall's  Early).— Said  to  be  large, 
fine  flavored  and  firm,  ripening  two  weeks  earlier  than  Lawton. 
Grown  in  California,  but  has  not  proved  valuable  in  the  East. 

Texas  Hybrid  (Texas  Pink  Hybrid). — Of  medium  size,  delicate 
pink  color,  sweet  and  nearly  free  from  seed. 

Topsy  (Childs's  Tree  Blackberry). — Canes  stout,  upright  and 
viciously  thorny,  but  not  hardy;  fruit  large,  late,  soft,  of  good,  but 
not  high  quality.  Of  no  real  value  in  cultivation. 

Truman  Thomless. — Received  at  the  office  of  the  United  States 


230  Bush-Fruits 

Pomologist  in  1892,  from  G.  P.  Peffer,  Pewaukee,  Wisconsin,  and 
mentioned  in  the  report  of  that  year.  Said  to  be  nearly  thornless, 
as  hardy  as  Snyder,  earlier  and  better. 

Wachusett. — Found  growing  wild  on  Monadnock  Mountain,  in 
Massachusetts.  A  shy  bearer  of  little  practical  value,  but  of  his- 
torical interest. 

Wallace. — Introduced  by  Wallace  of  Wayne  Co.,  Indiana,  about 
1862.  Stocky,  upright,  with  broad  round  leaves  resembling  Snyder; 
hardy,  vigorous  and  productive.  Fruit  large  and  of  excellent  quality. 
A  valuable  mid-season  variety. 

Wapsie. — An  Iowa  variety,  mentioned  as  on  trial  and  proving 
very  hardy  thus  far. — Kept.  Ohio  Hort.  Soc.  1888  :  192. 

Ward. — Largely  grown  in  New  Jersey,  where  it  was  found  growing 
wild.  Thought  to  be  a  seedling  of  Kittatinny,  which  it  much  re- 
sembles. Plant  hardy,  vigorous,  productive  and  much  more  rust- 
resistant  than  its  parent.  Fruit  large,  black  throughout,  without 
a  hard  core,  sweet  and  of  excellent  quality. 

Warren. — Fairly  hardy  and  quite  productive.  Berry  about  like 
Snyder  in  quality  and  size. 

Washington.— Raised  by  Prof.  C.  G.  Page,  Washington,  D.  C. 
Fruit  large,  black,  sweet  and  good. — Downing.  Mentioned  as  new 
in  Hovey's  Magazine,  in  1859. 

Washington  Belle. — Sent  out  from  the  state  of  Washington  with 
the  Skagit  Chief.  Both  varieties  appear  to  have  the  imperfect 
blossoms  so  common  in  the  western  dewberry. 

Watt. — -Found  growing  in  an  orchard  near  Lawrence,  Kansas,  some 
years  ago.  A  strong  grower,  productive,  hardy  and  resistant  to 
disease.  Begins  ripening  early  and  extends  late  into  the  season. 
Fruit  large,  roundish,  glossy  black  and  of  good  quality. 

Western  Triumph. — Found  upon  the  open  prairie,  in  Lake  county, 
Illinois,  in  1858,  by  Mr.  Biddle,  of  Muskegon.  Fruit  of  medium 
size.  Lacking  in  hardiness,  and  inclined  to  overbear. 

Weston. — Originated  with  Adrian  Durkes,  of  Weston,  Mo.,  who 
considered  it  more  productive  than  Newman  or  Lawton. 

White  Dewberry  (D). — White  dewberries  appear  to  be  well  known 
in  Texas.  One  is  mentioned  in  the  Gardener's  Monthly  for  1877, 
p.  174,  as  being  known  among  the  horticulturists  of  that  state. 


Varieties  of  Blackberries  and  Dewberries      231 

What  is  very  likely  the  same  thing  was  received  from  Colorado 
county,  of  that  state,  and  introduced  by  Samuel  Wilson,  of  Penn- 
sylvania, in  1890,  under  the  name  Mammoth  White,  or  Wilson's 
White.  The  natural  inference  is  that  the  Albino  White  of  Parry 
and  the  Crystal  White  of  Childs  belong  to  the  same  type. 

Wilson  (Wilson's  Early)  (H). — This  variety  was  discovered  by 
John  Wilson,  of  Burlington,  N.  J.,  about  1854.  The  bush  partakes 
of  the  habit  of  both  the  low  and  the  high  blackberry,  some  of  the 
shoots  being  erect  and  branching,  others  slender,  and  trailing  on 
the  ground,  indicating  a  hybrid  origin.  The  trailing  shoots  some- 
times take  root  at  the  tips.  The  fruit  is  very  large,  firm,  somewhat 
irregular,  tapering  toward  the  apex;  grains  mostly  large,  but  with 
some  small  ones  mixed  in.  Long  a  popular  variety  in  New  Jersey. 
It  demands  close  pruning  to  prevent  overbearing,  and  must  be 
covered  for  winter  protection  in  most  localities. 

Wilson  Junior  (H). — William  Parry,  in  1870,  selected  plants  of 
Dorchester  and  Wilson  and  planted  them  together,  far  away  from 
any  others,  trusting  that  the  pollen  of  one  kind  might  mix  with  the 
other.  In  1875  he  selected  some  of  the  best  Wilson  varieties  for 
seed.  After  watching  the  other  seedlings  for  four  years,  the  largest 
and  best  was  selected,  and  this  is  Wilson  Junior. — -Gar.  Month. 
27  : 208.  The  plant  is  so  like  its  parent,  the  Wilson,  as  to  be  indis- 
tinguishable from  it. 

Windom  (Cook's  Hardy)  (D). — Brought  to  notice  in  1887  by  the 
Seedling  Commission  of  the  Minnesota  State  Horticultural  Society. 
It  was  discovered  and  brought  into  cultivation  by  Dewain  Cook,  of 
that  state,  who  found  it  to  be  hardy,  productive,  of  fair  size,  and 
good  flavor. 

Woodland. — Plants  thrifty,  productive,  with  abundant  small 
prickles.  Fruit  medium,  with  large  grams;  flavor  and  quality  good. 

Recommended  varieties  of  blackberries  and  dewberries. — 
Snyder  long  held  the  lead  as  a  commercial  blackberry 
and  even  yet  stands  well  to  the  front.  Its  hardiness,  pro- 
ductiveness, bright  color  and  good  shipping  qualities  have 
been  in  its  favor.  Its  quality  is  poor,  and  it  ought  to  be 


232  Bush-Fruits 

replaced  by  better  varieties  wherever  possible.  Taylor  is  a 
better  berry  and  nearly  or  quite  as  dependable,  possibly 
not  quite  so  attractive  in  appearance.  Other  varieties 
which  are  in  high  repute  in  certain  localities  are  Ancient 
Briton,  Eldorado,  Erie,  Mersereau  and  Ward. 

Among  dewberries,  Lucretia  appears  to  lead  in  the 
East,  Mayes  in  the  Middle  West  and  Southwest,  while 
the  loganberry  and  Mammoth  seem  to  be  the  great  berries 
of  the  Pacific  slope. 


CHAPTER  IX 
INSECTS  AFFECTING  THE  BRAMBLES 

THE  insects  which  attack  brambles  are  many  and 
various,  some  serious,  others  but  chance  or  general  feeders. 
Taken  as  a  whole  these  fruits  are  less  subject  to  injury 
than  many  others,  though  at  times  considerable  damage 
may  occur  from  the  depredations  of  some  of  their  enemies. 

In  this  discussion  no  exhaustive  treatment  of  any  of 
them  will  be  attempted.  The  more  important  facts  con- 
cerning their  life-history,  together  with  the  most  feasible 
methods  of  combating  them,  are  given  in  condensed  form, 
for  the  use  of  the  busy  man  who  may  need  to  meet  them 
and  do  it  promptly,  with  little  time  for  investigation  or 
study.  Slingerland  and  Crosby's  "  Manual  of  Fruit  In- 
sects," to  which  the  reader  is  referred  for  a  more  complete 
discussion  of  many  of  them,  is  drawn  on  largely  for  present 
knowledge  and  recent  methods  of  control. 

THE    TREE-CRICKET 

(Ecanthus  nigricornis,  Walker 

The  work  done  by  this  insect  was,  until  recently,  attributed  to 
another  species,  the  snowy  tree-cricket,  which  is  now  found  to  limit 
its  work  chiefly  to  apple  and  other  fruit-trees.  The  insect  is  a  deli- 
cate, greenish-white,  long-horned  cricket,  with  broad  and  trans- 
parent wing-covers,  through  which  the  folded  wings  can  be  seen. 
These  wing-covers  are  crossed  by  oblique  thickenings  or  ribs,  which 

233 


234  Bush-Fruits 

form  part  of  the  musical  apparatus  of  the  insect.     Its  chirp  is  a 
familiar  sound  at  night  during  late  summer  and  autumn. 

The  insect  is  beneficial,  in  the  main,  rather  than  injurious,  since 
the  young  crickets,  which  hatch  in  May  and  June,  feed  principally 
on  aphids  and  other  soft-bodied  insects.  The  only  injury  worthy 
of  mention  is  that  caused  by  the  female  in  depositing  her  eggs  in 
autumn.  Their  location  is  shown  by  a  narrow,  ragged  wound,  some 
two  inches  long.  If  the  cane  is  split  open  there  will  be  found  inserted 
in  the  pith  a  row  of  oblong,  cylindrical,  yellowish  eggs,  about  one- 
eighth  of  an  inch  in  length.  These  punctures  may  either  kill  the 
upper  part  of  the  cane  or  weaken  it  to  such  an  extent  as  to  prevent 
the  fruit  from  ripening. 

Remedy. — Since  the  eggs  are  laid  in  autumn,  but  do  not  hatch 
until  the  following  summer,  cutting  out  and  burning  the  wounded 
parts  at  the  annual  pruning  is  the  only  remedy  necessary. 
Reference. 

Parrott,  Jour.  EC.  Ent.  4:216. 

THE    BRAMBLE    FLEA-LOUSE    OR   BLACKBERRY   PSYLLID 

Trioza  tripunctata,  Fitch 

This  insect  is  a  jumping  plant-louse,  closely  related  to  the  pear 
psylla.  It  occurs  in  the  Atlantic  states  from  Maine  to  Virginia.  Its 
native  food  is  the  wild  blackberry  and  it  has  long  been  known  as 
an  enemy  of  the  cultivated  blackberry.  The  following  description 
and  life-history  are  taken  from  Slingerland  and  Crosby's  Manual  of 
Fruit  Insects. 

"The  adult  insect  is  about  one  sixth  inch  in  length;  the  body  is 
yellowish-brown,  the  eyes  dark  brown,  and  the  wings  marked  by 
three  yellowish-brown  bands.  The  insect  hibernates  as  an  adult. 
The  flies  appear  on  the  blackberry  soon  after  growth  starts  in  the 
spring  aW  deposit  their  minute,  light  yellow  eggs  in  the  pubescence 
of  the  leaf  petioles  and  young  canes.  On  Long  Island  adults,  eggs 
and  newly  hatched  nymphs  were  observed  the  latter  part  of  June. 
Both  adults  and  nymphs  puncture  the  leaves  and  tender  canes  with 
their  piercing  mouth-parts  and  feed  on  the  juices  of  the  plant,  causing 
the  leaves  to  curl,  also  dwarfing  and  distorting  the  young  canes. 


The  Bramble  Flea-louse 


235 


The  minute  young  nymphs  are  whitish  or  greenish  white  in  color; 
the  older  nymphs  are  yellowish.  They  mature  in  early  fall  and  the 
adults  go  into  hibernation." 

The  effect  on  the  plant  was  well  described  by  Charles  Parry,  a 
horticulturist  of  New  Jersey,  as  long  ago  as  1869.    He  says: 

"The  suckers  upon  which  this  insect  occurs  in  the  spring  com- 
mence to  twirl  around,  and,  when 
not  interfered  with,  make  a  com- 
plete revolution  before  they  re- 
sume their  usual  course.  The 
leaves  curl  up,  and  become 
matted  around  the  curl,  so  as  to 
make  a  safe  harbor  for  the  lice-like 
larvae,  which  during  the  summer 
appear  on  the  under  surface  of 
the  leaves." 

Owing  to  the  peculiar  distorted 
appearance  of  infested  plants  the 
injury  has  sometimes  been  mis- 
taken for  a  fungous  disease.  In 
some  localities  it  is  known  under 
the  name  of  "mistletoe."  (Fig. 
26.) 

Methods  of  control. — -Thorough 
work  in  cutting  out  and  destroy- 
ing the  infected  parts  is  the  means 
of  control  most  generally  advised. 
It  has  also  been  suggested  that 
methods  similar  to  those  used 
against  the  pear  psylla  might 
prove  effective.  Tobacco  extract 
and  kerosene  emulsion  are  the  favorite  remedies  for  this  purpose, 
Little  definite  knowledge  seems  to  be  available. 
Reference. 

Geneva,  N.  Y.,  Expt.  Sta.  Kept.  14:619  (1895). 


Fig.  26.    Blackberry    "mistletoe," 
work  of  the  bramble  flea-louse. 


236  Bush-Fruits 

THE    BUD-MOTH 

Tmetocera  ocellana,  Schiffermuller 

The  bud-moth  is  primarily  an  apple  insect  but  often  attacks  black- 
berry plants,  as  well  as  other  fruits.  It  spends  the  winter  as  a  half- 
grown,  dark  brown,  black-headed  caterpillar,  in  a  little  silken  retreat 
near  the  buds.  As  soon  as  the  buds  begin  to  open  in  spring  the 
caterpillars  leave  their  winter  quarters  and  begin  feeding  on  the 
tender  buds.  They  tie  the  expanding  leaves  and  flowers  together 
with  silken  threads,  drawing  in  more  leaves  and  flowers  as  needed. 
The  partly  eaten  leaves  soon  turn  brown,  thus  rendering  the  work 
conspicuous. 

The  larva  lives  most  of  the  time  within  a  tube  formed  by  rolling 
the  edge  of  the  leaf  down,  fastening  it,  and  sparsely  lining  the  in- 
terior with  silk.  It  comes  forth  from  this  tube  to  feed,  but  quickly 
retreats  into  it  again  when  disturbed.  Pupation  occurs  in  a  cocoon 
formed  in  a  similar  manner.  The  moths,  which  in  New  York  ap- 
pear in  the  latter  part  of  June,  fly  mostly  at  night,  remaining  quiet 
on  the  trunk  and  limbs  of  trees  during  the  day,  and  are  so  similar  to 
the  bark  in  color  as  not  to  be  easily  seen. 

The  eggs  are  generally  laid  singly  on  the  under  surface  of  the 
leaves,  and  are  so  nearly  transparent  that  they  closely  resemble 
fish  scales  or  minute  drops  of  water.  They  hatch  in  from  seven 
to  ten  days,  and  these  summer  larvse  soon  make  themselves  a  tube 
of  silk  mingled  with  bits  of  excrement.  They  feed  on  the  epidermis 
and  inner  tissue  of  the  leaf,  not  eating  through  it,  and  spin  a  protect- 
ing web  over  their  entire  feeding  ground.  After  the  third  moult, 
when  they  have  attained  a  length  of  about  4  millimeters,  they  leave 
their  tubes,  and  make  for  themselves  a  little  silken  cell  in  some  crevice 
or  roughness  of  the  bark,  where  they  pass  the  winter,  in  readiness  for 
the  opening  buds  the  following  spring.  Their  injuries  at  that  time 
are  particularly  exasperating,  because  they  apparently  destroy  as 
many  leaves  and  flowers  as  possible  by  eating  only  a  part  of  each. 
There  is  normally  but  one  brood  in  northern  latitudes,  though  since 
the  larvse  hibernate  when  half-grown,  two  different  generations 
appear  during  the  same  season. 


The  Bramble  Crown-borer  237 

Remedies. — -Spraying  with  arsenical  poisons  just  as  the  buds  open, 
or  gathering  and  destroying  the  brown  "nests"  which  are  formed 
by  the  dead  leaves  soon  after  the  insect  begins  its  work,  appear  to 
be  the  most  feasible  means  of  attack.  Several  parasites,  some  birds, 
and  a  large  predacious  wasp,  prey  upon  this  insect  and  help  to  hold 
it  in  check. 
Reference. 

Cornell  Univ.  Expt.  Sta.  Bulls.  50  and  107. 

THE    BRAMBLE    CROWN-BORER    (FIG.    27) 

Bembecia  marginata,  Harris 

This  insect  is  a  near  relative  of  the  peach-borer,  being  so  similar 
in  all  its  transformations  that  it  has  at  times  been  mistaken  for  that 
insect  by  growers.    The  adult  insects  are  clear-winged  moths,  appear- 
ing much  like  wasps  or  hornets,  for  which 
they  may  be  readily  mistaken  when  seen 
in  the  open  field.    The  body  of  the  insect 
is  rather  more  than  half  an  inch  in  length, 
black  and  prettily  banded  with   golden 
yellow,  with  a   tuft  of  yellow  hair  near 
the  base  of  the   abdomen.     The  wings 
are  narrow,  transparent,  with  a  bronze  or       Fig.  27.  Crown-borer, 
reddish   brown   margin,   the   front   wings         Bembecia  marginata. 
having  also  a  narrow  cross-band  toward  the  tip.     They  measure 
about  an  inch  across  when  expanded. 

The  moths  emerge  during  August  and  early  September  and  the 
eggs  are  deposited  on  the  under  side  of  the  leaves  near  the  edge. 
The  young  caterpillar  crawls  down  the  cane  and  goes  into  winter 
quarters  in  some  protected  place,  usually  just  underneath  the  surface 
of  the  ground.  In  spring  it  enters  the  roots  or  the  base  of  the  cane, 
generally  burrowing  just  underneath  the  bark  and  girdling  that 
part  of  the  plant.  The  second  winter  they  hibernate  in  their  burrows, 
being  then  one-half  to  three-fourths  inches  long.  In  spring  they 
work  upward,  then  outward  to  near  the  surface  before  changing  to 
the  pupa  sta^e. 

Destroying  the  larva  by  digging  it  out  or  removing  and  burning 


238  Bush-Fruits 

the  wilting  or  dying  tips  which  show  its  presence4are  the  only  prac- 
ticable methods  of  control  known. 
References. 

N.  J.  Expt.  Sta.  Spec.  Bull.  N.  (1891). 

Wash.  Expt.  Sta.  Bull.  63. 

THE   RASPBERRY  CANE-MAGGOT 

Phorbia  rubivora,  Coquillett 

This  is  the  larva  of  a  true  fly,  grayish  black  in  color,  closely  re- 
sembling the  common  house-fly,  though  not  quite  as  large.  The 
larva  is  a  slender,  white,  footless  maggot,  found  burrowing  in  the 
tips  of  raspberry  canes.  It  is  closely  related  to  the  radish  and  onion 
maggot.  The  eggs  are  laid  early  in  spring,  very  soon  after  the  young 
canes  start,  in  the  fork  at  the  base  of  the  tip  leaves.  The  young  larva 
burrows  into  the  cane  near  the  point  of  hatching,  works  its  way  down- 
ward in  the  pith  a  short  distance,  then  proceeds  to  girdle  the  cane 
inside  the  bark.  The  part  above  the  girdle  soon  wilts,  turns  to  a 
dark  blue  color  and  dies.  The  effect  is  usually  to  kill  the  entire  shoot 
also.  The  larva  continues  to  bore  downward  in  the  dead  or  dying 
cane,  transforms  to  a  pupa  near  the  base,  and  there  remains  until 
the  following  spring,  when  it  emerges  as  the  adult  fly. 

Although  often  a  serious  pest,  the  insect  may  readily  be  over- 
come.   If  the  wilting  tips  are  gathered  and  burned  as  soon  as  no- 
ticed, which  will  usually  be  during  May,  the  work  of  those  larvae 
will  be  forever  ended. 
References. 

Cornell  Univ.  Expt.  Sta.  Bull.  126:54. 

Wash.  Expt.  Sta.  Bull.  62. 

THE   AMERICAN  RASPBERRY  BEETLE    (FIG.   28) 

Byturus  unicolor,  Say 

This  insect  is  doubly  troublesome,  because  injurious,  or  at  least 
annoying,  both  in  the  perfect  and  in  the  larval  state.  The  mature 
insect  is  a  small  beetle  about  three-twentieths  of  an  inch  long,  of  a 
yellowish  brown  or  pale  reddish  color,  and  densely  covered  with 
fine,  pale  yellow  hairs.  In  this  form  it  is  injurious  to  raspberries  and 


The  Red-Necked  Cane-Borer  239 

blackberries,  first  by  attacking  the  opening  buds  and  tender  leaves, 
then  by  eating  into  the  flower  buds  and  destroying  the  sexual  organs. 
A  hole  in  the  side  of  the  bud  will  show  where  the 
beetle  has  entered.     When  the  injury  is  complete, 
the 'buds  usually  wither  and  fail  to  open;  if  only 
partial,  the  flower  may  expand,  but  only  to  develop 
an  imperfect,  worthless  berry.    It  also  attacks  the 
open  flowers,  partially  hiding  at  the  base  of  the 
stamens.    It  works  chiefly  in  the  morning  and  even- 
ing, seldom  being  seen  in  the  middle  of  the  day.  ,Fi£-  28\ 

,        .  .     ,    turns  unicolor. 
Its  offspring  appears  as  a  small,  soft,  tarnished 

white  worm,  remaining  on  the  fruit  of  the  red  raspberry  when  it  is 
gathered.  It  is  usually  found  within  the  cup  or  cavity  of  the  berry, 
and  is  difficult  to  detect. 

When  full  grown,  the  larva  drops  to  the  ground,  often  with  the 
berry,  no  doubt,  hides  under  any  convenient  rubbish,  forms  a  little 
cell  in  the  earth,  and  changes  to  a  hairy  pupa  of  a  pale,  dull  yellowish 
color.  Here  it  remains  during  the  winter,  transforming  to  the  per- 
fect beetle  about  the  middle  or  latter  part  of  May,  and  emerging  in 
time  to  carry  on  its  destructive  work  in  the  blossom  buds. 

Remedies. — -Thorough  spraying  with  arsenate  of  lead  at  the  rate 
of  three  to  four  pounds  to  50  gallons  of  water,  at  the  time  when 
the  beetles  first  appear,  has  been  found  effective  at  the  Ohio  Ex- 
periment Station.  Shallow  cultivation  in  the  fall  has  been  suggested 
as  a  means  of  destroying  the  pupae. 
References. 

Fitch,  Trans.  N.  Y.  State  Agr.  Soc.,  1870,  p.  358. 

Felt,  Kept.  N.  Y.  State  Ent.  15:158  (1898). 

Ohio  Agr.  Expt.  Sta.  Bull.  202. 

THE  RED-NECKED  CANE-BORER  (FIG.  29) 
RED-NECKED  AGRILUS  GOUTY-GALL  BEETLE 

Agrilus  ruficollis,  Fabr. 

In  winter  and  spring  the  canes  of  raspberries  and  blackberries 
often  show  one  or  more  comparatively  small  and  regular  swellings, 
an  inch  or»more  in  length,  the  outer  portions  being  roughened  with 
brownish  slits  and  ridges.  They  are  rarely  more  than  one-third 


240 


Bush-Fruits 


thicker  than  the  normal  cane,  and  are  caused  by  the  work  of  a 
small  borer,  which  is  very  similar  in  appearance  and  which  belongs 
to  the  same  family  as  the  flatheaded  apple-tree  borer.  It  is  de- 
scribed as  about  one-third  of  an  inch  long,  with  black  wing-covers 

having  a  dull  bluish  reflection. 
The  thorax  or  neck  has  a  reddish 
or  coppery  appearance  and  the 
head  is  black  with  metallic  re- 
flections. They  may  be  found 
from  late  May  until  August,  being 
most  abundant  in  June.  The 
egg  is  laid  near  the  base  of  a  leaf 
on  the  young  growth.  The  galls 
are  usually  confined  to  the  main 
canes,  and  may  be  near  the  base, 
or  two  or  three  feet  above  ground, 
though  sometimes  even  the  more 
vigorous  laterals  are  attacked. 
The  injured  canes  may  put  forth 
leaves  and  blossoms,  but  the  fruit 
seldom  ripens,  and  the  cane  dies 

*||||||riL        before  the  end  of  the  season. 
jkjjj  The  larva?  burrow  in  a  spiral 

J£  direction,    confining   themselves, 

ft  I          *n  *^e  early  stages  °f  their  exist- 

VW]          ence,   wholly  to  the  sap  wood, 
RlSl          and  by  this  means  girdle  and  kill 


the  cane.  According  to  one  ob- 
server, this  habit  of  girdling  the 
cane  in  order  to  kill  it  the  first 
season  seems  to  contribute  to  the 
safety  of  the  larvae,  which  other- 
wise freeze  and  perish,  perhaps  owing  to  the  greater  quantity  of  sap 
which  surrounds  them  in  living  canes.  They  are  said  to  be  more  fre- 
quently destroyed  in  this  manner  in  blackberries  than  in  raspberries. 
Like  the  crown-borer,  it  often  escapes  detection  by  reason  of  the  be- 
lief that  the  injury  is.  due  to  winter-killing. 


The  Rose  Chafer  241 

The  larva  reaches  its  full  size  toward  the  latter  part  of  April, 
bores  into  the  middle  of  the  cane,  where  it  will  be  more  secure  from 
insect  foes,  forms  a  smooth,  oval  cell,  and  transforms  into  a  white 
pupa,  showing  quite  plainly  the  marks  of  the  future  beetle.  It 
gradually  darkens,  and  assumes  more  and  more  the  form  of  the 
perfect  insect. 

Control. — As  the  perfect  insect  does  not  emerge  from  the  cane  till 
late  in  spring,  it  is  only  necessary  to  attend  to  the  spring  pruning 
promptly,  taking  care  to  watch  for  and  remove  all  galls.  All  wood 
cut  away  should  be  carefully  collected  and  burned,  for  removing  it 
from  the  root  in  no  way  hinders  the  development  of  the  beetles. 
Although  black  raspberries  are  attacked,  no  galls  are  formed  and 
little  or  no  injury  is  done,  the  insect  apparently  confining  its  work  to 
the  center  of  the  cane.  This  may  make  its  destruction  more  difficult, 
since  its  presence  cannot  be  easily  detected.  Wild  bushes  growing 
in  the  vicinity  are  also  a  menace  by  serving  as  breeding-grounds. 
The  insect  is  reported  more  destructive  in  the  southern  than  in  the 
northern  states. 
References. 

N.  J.  Expt.  Sta.  Spec.  Bull.  N. 

W.  Va.  Expt.  Sta.  Bull.  15. 

Ohio  Expt.  Sta.  Bull.  45. 

THE   ROSE   CHAFER    (PIG.   30) 

Macrodactylus  subspinosus,  Fabr. 

In  sandy  regions,  where  it  is  prevalent,  this  is  one  of  the  most 
dreaded  enemies  of  the  horticulturist.  It  appears  in  such  vast 
hordes  oftentimes,  and  is  so  difficult  to  poison,  that  it  is  very  hard 
to  combat.  In  July  the  female  beetle  lays  about  thirty  whitish, 
nearly  globular  eggs  about  one-thirtieth  of  an  inch  in  diameter, 
which  are  placed  three  to  six  inches  beneath  the  surface  of  the  ground. 
The  eggs  hatch  in  about  twenty  days,  and  the  young  larvae  feed 
on  the  roots  of  grasses  and  other  plants  until  the  approach  of  cold 
weather,  when  they  work  their  way  deeper  into  the  ground,  passing 
the  winter  in  a  torpid  state.  In  spring  they  approach  the  surface 
and  form  an  oval  cell  of  earth  in  which  to  pupate,  and  from  which 


242  Bush-Fruits 

they  emerge  in  great  numbers,  all  at  once,  a  habit  common  to  other 
beetles  of  the  class  to  which  they  belong.  This  occurs  about  the  time 
that  grapes  are  in  blossom.  The  favorite  food  of 
the  mature  beetle  consists  of  flowers,  especially  those 
of  the  rose,  grape,  spirea,  sumach,  magnolia,  etc. ;  but 
the  foliage  of  nearly  all  plants  also  suffers.  In  one 
report  of  their  ravages  in  New  Jersey,  Professor 
Smith  says:  "Of  the  small  fruits,  the  blackberries 
seemed  very  attractive.  They  were  on  each  blossom, 
and  ate  the  petals  but  left  the  green  forming  fruit. 
Last  year  they  ate  the  leaves  as  well,  and  left  only 
Fig.  30.  Rose  the  canes.  This  year  they  left  the  leaves.  Raspber- 
ries were  totally  destroyed." 

Although  occurring  throughout  the  greater  portion  of  the  northern 
half  of  the  United  States  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  it  appears 
to  be  more  or  less  local  in  its  habits,  for  in  parts  of  central  New  York 
and  northern  Pennsylvania  it  is  seldom  or  never  seen.  In  the  Gulf 
states  and  the  extreme  southwest  the  species  is  replaced  by  other 
closely  allied  ones.  These,  though  very  similar  in  appearance  are 
usually  less  destructive. 

Remedies. — Many  remedies  have  been  tried  against  this  insect,  but 
usually  with  very  unsatisfactory  results.  Ordinary  spraying  has  af- 
forded little  relief.  The  insects  either  avoid  the  poison  or  are  af- 
fected so  slowly  that  little  benefit  results.  Recently  it  has  been  found 
that  sweetening  arsenate  of  lead  with  molasses  or  glucose  gives  much 
better  results.  Four  pounds  of  the  lead  arsenate  and  one  gallon  of 
molasses  to  fifty  gallons  of  water  are  the  proportions  recommended. 
It  should  be  applied  as  soon  as  the  beetles  appear  and  repeated  if 
necessary.  Thorough  cultivation  of  the  soil  when  the  insect  is  in 
the  pupa  stage,  during  late  May  and  early  June,  is  thought  to  de- 
stroy many  of  them.  Waste  grass  lands  which  afford  breeding- 
grounds  for  the  pest  are  objectionable  in  the  vicinity. 
References. 

N.  J.  Expt.  Sta.  Bull.  82. 
Geneva,  N.  Y.,  Expt.  Sta.  Bull.  331. 
U.  S.  Bur.  Ent.  Giro.  11  and  Bull.  97. 
Hartzell,  Jour.  EC.  Ent.  IV,  19. 


The  Raspberry  Cane-borer  243 

THE  RASPBERRY  CANE-BORER  (FIG.  31) 

Oberea  bimaculata,  Olivier 

The  larva  of  this  species  is  a  footless  grub,  similar  to  the  round- 
headed  apple-tree  borer  in  form,  found  boring  in  both  blackberry 
and  raspberry  canes.  It  is  best  known  as  a  raspberry  insect,  but  in 
Bulletin  23  of  the  Cornell  University  Experiment  Station,  from  which 
the  following  quotations  are  taken,  an  instance  is  recorded  of  serious 
injury  to  blackberries.  In  this  case  the  boring  larvae  were  found  only 
in  the  bearing  canes,  while  in  raspberries  they  attack  the  young  shoots. 

"The  mature  insect  is  a  long-horned,  slender-bodied  beetle  about 
half  an  inch  in  length.  It  is  of  a  deep  black  color,  except  the  segment 
next  the  head,  the  pro  thorax,  which  is  yel- 
low. There  are  usually  two  or  three  black 
spots  on  the  upper  part  of  this  segment, 
but  frequently  these  are  wanting. 

"The  eggs  are  laid  in  the  early  summer, 
usually  during  the  month  of  June.  They 
were  not  observed  in  the  blackberry;  but 
when  the  insect  infests  raspberries,  the 

first   indication   of   the  injury   noticed  is    FiS-      31.      Cane-borer. 

„     ,,         ...  11-         f  ^i  Oberea  bimaculata. 

usually  the  withering  and  drooping  of  the 

ends  of  the  young  shoots.  If  these  be  examined,  there  will  be  found 
at  the  base  of  the  wilted  portion  two  rows  of  punctures  encircling  the 
cane  about  half  an  inch  apart,  and  between  them  a  small  hole  in  which 
an  egg  has  been  deposited.  This  double  girdling  of  the  cane  is  done 
by  the  beetle  with  her  jaws  at  the  time  she  lays  her  egg.  It  has  been 
suggested  that  the  purpose  served  by  this  girdling  is  the  arresting  of 
the  circulation  of  the  sap  in  this  part  of  the  cane;  and  in  this  way  the 
prevention  of  the  crushing  of  the  tender  egg  by  a  vigorous  and  rapid 
growth  of  the  tip  of  the  cane."  The  larvae  bore  downward  in  the 
pith  of  the  cane,  probably  reaching  the  root  in  aTitumn,  where  they 
transform  and  pass  the  winter.  "The  burrows  are  about  one-eighth 
of  an  inch  in  diameter;  they  wind  from  side  to  side  of  the  pith,  and 
at  frequent  intervals  penetrate  the  woody  part  of  the  cane.  In  some 
of  the  cases  where  the  woody  part  of  the  cane  is  penetrated,  an 
opening  is  made  through  the  bark.  These  openings  occur  at  in- 


244  Bush-Fruits 

tervals  of  a  few  inches  throughout  the  length  of  the  tunneled  portion 
of  the  canes;  they  are  small,  being  about  one-third  of  the  diameter 
of  the  burrow;  and  their  object  is  to  enable  the  larva  to  deposit  its 
excrement  outside  of  the  burrow." 

Remedies. — "The methods  of  combating  this  insect  are  simple,  but 
they  require  prompt  attention.  As  soon  as  the  tips  of  the  canes  begin 
to  droop  they  should  be  cut  off  below  the  point  where  they  are  girdled. 
In  this  way  the  larva  can  be  destroyed  before  it  has  begun  to  bore  into 
the  lower  portion  of  the  cane,  and  thus  only  the  tip  of  the  cane  will 
be  lost.  When,  however,  the  first  indication  of  the  presence  of  this 
pest  is  the  dying  of  the  entire  cane,  caused  by  the  boring  of  the  larva, 
the  infested  canes  should  be  promptly  cut  out  and  burned.  These 
canes  can  be  readily  recognized  by  the  dying  of  the  leaves  and  by 
the  small  holes  in  them  described  above.  They  are  most  likely  to 
be  observed  at  the  time  of  the  blackberry  harvest.  It  is  of  the  ut- 
most importance  that  the  cutting  and  burning  of  these  canes  should 
be  done  promptly.  For  if  it  be  delayed  till  autumn,  the  larvae  will 
have  penetrated  the  roots  and  will  then  be  beyond  the  reach  of  the 
pruning  shears." 
References. 

Cornell  Univ.  Expt.  Sta.  Bull.  23. 

Ohio  Expt.  Sta.  Bull.  96. 

THE    STRAWBERRY   WEEVIL    (FIG.    32) 

Anthonomus  signatus,  Say 

Although  this  insect  is  primarily  known  as  a  strawberry  pest, 
where  its  injury  is  most  common  and  most  serious,  it  breeds  in  the 
buds  of  wild  blackberries  and   dewberries  and 
some  other  plants.    At  times,  when  abundant,  it 
^oes  material  damage  to  cultivated  blackberries. 
It  is  a  small  curculio  or  snout-beetle,  about  one- 
Fig.     32.     Weevil* tenth  of  an  inch  long,  with  black  head  and  convex 
shininS  wing-covers  varying  in  color  from  black  to 
reddish  brown,  but  with  a  large  black  spot  on  each. 
The  insects  hibernate  in  the  beetle  stage,  under  rubbish,  especially 
in  woodlots  and  hedge-rows.   In  spring  they  appear  and  begin  feeding 
on  immature  pollen,  then  deposit  their  eggs  in  the  unopened  buds 


The  Raspberry  Saw-Fly  245 

of  strawberries,  blackberries,  and  the  like.  The  eggs  are  laid  inside 
of  unopened  buds  in  which  plenty  of  pollen  will  be  found  for  the 
young  larvae  to  feed  upon.  After  laying  the  egg  the  female  crawls 
down  the  stem  of  the  bud  and  girdles  it  so  that  it  either  falls  at  once 
or  after  hanging  by  a  few  shreds  for  a  short  tune.  The  larvae  de- 
velop upon  the  pollen  and  inner  parts  of  this  fallen  bud,  then  pupate 
within  it.  The  beetles  feed  for  a  short  time  after  emerging  upon 
pollen,  especially  that  of  wild  bergamot,  then  go  into  winter  quarters 
in  midsummer,  there  being  but  one  generation  a  year. 

Control. — Fortunately,  the  work  of  this  insect  comes  in  cycles,  be- 
ing serious  for  two  or  three  years  then  disappearing.  Little  seems 
to  be  known  in  regard  to  definite  means  of  control.  With  straw- 
berries, planting  largely  imperfect  varieties  which  are  less  subject  to 
attack,  by  reason  of  not  supplying  pollen  for  the  insect  to  feed  upon, 
may  help.  With  the  blackberry,  clean  cultivation,  to  destroy  the  hi- 
bernating quarters  of  the  beetles,  is  perhaps  the  most  feasible  means 
of  attack. 
References. 

Chittenden,  Ins.  Life,  5:167  and  7:14. 

N.  J.  Expt.  Sta.  Bull.  225. 

THE    RASPBERRY    SAW-FLY 

Monophadnus  rubi,  Harris 

This  insect  is  a  black,  thick-bodied,  four-winged  fly  about  one- 
fourth  inch  in  length,  the  female  having  a  yellowish-white  band 
across  the  abdomen.  The  flies  appear  in  May  and  the  eggs  are  placed 
between  the  two  layers  of  the  leaf  near  a  vein.  The  leaf  dries  at  the 
point  where  the  egg  is  laid,  giving  it  a  spotted  appearance.  The 
larvae  feed  upon  the  leaf  tissues,  eating  out  irregular  holes  and  even 
all  but  the  larger  veins.  The  full-grown  larvae  are  about  three-fourths 
of  an  inch  long,  light  green  in  color  and  covered  with  transverse  rows 
of  spine-bearing  tubercles.  When  full  grown  they  leave  the  bush, 
enter  the  ground  and  make  for  themselves  a  little  oval  earthy  cocoon 
mixed  with  silky  and  glutinous  matter,  from  which  the  flies  emerge 
the  following  spring. 

Control. — In  well-cultivated  fields  brushing  the  larvae  from  the 
plants  in  the  middle  of  the  day  so  that  they  fall  upon  the  hot 


246  Bush-Fruits 

ground  will  destroy  them.    Arsenical  sprays  are  effective,  but  owing 
to  the  danger  of  poisoning  the  fruit,  hellebore,  one  ounce  to  a 
gallon  of  water,  is  to  be  preferred. 
Reference. 
Geneva,  N.  Y.,  Expt.  Sta.  Bull.  150. 

THE   RED-SPIDER 

Tetranychus  bimaculatus,  Harvey 

This  is  a  minute  mite,  about  one-fiftieth  of  an  inch  long,  varying 
in  color  from  pale  greenish-yellow  to  dark  crimson-red,  with  two 
dark  spots  at  the  side  of  the  body.  It  is  a  well-known  greenhouse 
pest  and  sometimes  also  attacks  plants  in  the  open.  It  thrives  best 
in  a  hot,  dry  atmosphere,  hence  is  most  prevalent  in  times  of  heat 
and  drought. 

Red-spiderk  usually  work  on  the  under  side  of  leaves  under  a 
delicate  silken  web.  The  young  mites  are  lighter  in  color  than  the 
adults  and  have  only  six  legs  instead  of  eight.  They  continue  to 
breed  while  conditions  are  favorable,  then  hibernate  in  the  ground 
or  underneath  rubbish  until  spring. 

Remedies. — Dusting  the  under  side  of  the  leaves  with  finely  pow- 
dered sulfur,  or  spraying  with  a  mixture  of  it  at  the  rate  of  one 
pound  to  three  gallons  of  water  with  a  little  soap  added,  has  been 
found  effective.  Sulfur  is  difficult  to  keep  in  suspension.  To  help 
in  this  it  is  recommended  to  dissolve  a  small  amount  of  glue  in 
water  to  be  used  in  first  making  a  paste  of  the  sulfur.  Even  then 
constant  stirring  will  be  necessary. 

Plain  flour  paste  has  been  used  in  California  with  good  results. 
Care  is  taken  to  make  the  paste  smooth,  without  lumps,  diluting 
to  one  gallon  of  water  for  each  pound  of  flour.  It  is  then  cooked, 
stirring  constantly  and  adding  water  to  offset  evaporation.  For  use, 
four  gallons  of  the  stock  solution  are  added  to  fifty  gallons  of  water. 
This  too  has  a  tendency  to  settle  and  must  be  kept  well  agitated 
while  spraying. 
References. 

Maine  Expt.  Sta.  Kept.,  1892:133. 

Col.  Expt.  Sta.  Bull.  152. 

U.  S.  Bur.  Ent.  Circ.  166. 


The  Raspberry  Horntail  247 

THE    BLACKBERRY   LEAF-MINER 

Metallus  rubi,  Forbes 

Though  ordinarily  considered  of  minor  importance,  this  insect 
may  at  times  cause  considerable  damage.  The  adult  is  a  nearly 
black  saw-fly  about  one-sixth  of  an  inch  in  length.  The  larvae  feed 
between  the  two  layers  of  the  leaf  like  other  leaf-miners,  making 
rather  large,  irregular,  blotched  mines.  Sometimes  several  of  these 
mines  may  be  found  on  a  single  leaf.  These  injured  parts  turn  brown 
and  die.  The  flies  appear  and  begin  laying  their  eggs  in  May  and 
June.  The  larva  is  greenish  white,  with  brownish  markings,  and 
is  about  one-third  of  an  inch  long  when  full  grown.  The  larvae 
enter  the  ground  an  inch  or  so  to  transform,  and  hi  warmer  localities 
there  are  two  broods  a  year. 

Treatment. — A  mixture  of  one-half  pint  of  "Black  Leaf  40"  to- 
bacco extract,  two  pounds  of  soap  and  fifty  gallons  of  water,  which 
has  been  found  effective  against  an  elm  leaf -miner,  has  been  sug- 
gested as  a  possible  remedy  of  value. 

THE   RASPBERRY   WEBWORM 

Pamphilius  Fletcheri,  MacGillivray 

This  insect  has  been  reported  troublesome  in  New  Brunswick. 
It  is  a  bright  green  worm,  half  an  inch  long  when  full  grown,  being 
the  larva  of  a  small  sawfly.  They  web  together  the  terminal  leaves, 
feeding  within.  Handpicking,  or  dusting  with  hellebore  before  the 
webs  are  formed  are  suggested. 
Reference. 

Fletcher,  Kept.  Ent.  Bot.  1899,  p.  180. 

THE   RASPBERRY   HORNTAIL 

Hartigia  abdominalis,  Cresson 

This  is  another  cane-girdler,  which  has  caused  trouble  in  California, 
attacking  young  shoots  of  raspberry,  blackberry,  loganberry  and 
rose.  The  adult  is  a  slender,  yellow  and  black  four-winged  horntail 
fly  about  five-eighths  of  an  inch  in  length.  It  is  found  on  the  plants 


248  Bush-Fruits 

from  April  to  August.  The  eggs  are  inserted  just  under  the  bark  of 
the  young  tender  tips  of  the  young  canes.  The  larva  works  down- 
ward, several  times  around  the  cane,  thus  girdling  it.  It  then  bur- 
rows upward  until  the  tip  dies,  after  which  it  works  downward 
through  the  pith  toward  the  base  of  the  cane.  When  fully  grown 
the  larva  is  nearly  an  inch  long  and  nearly  white.  It  pupates  at  the 
end  of  the  burrow  and  the  adult  gnaws  its  way  out.  Crushing  the 
egg,  the  presence  of  which  is  shown  by  the  discolored  tissue,  or  cut- 
ting off  and  burning  the  dying  tips,  seem  to  be  the  most  feasible 
means  of  controlling  it. 
Reference. 

Monthly  Bull.  State  Com.  of  Hort.  Cal.  I,  No.  12  (1912). 

THE   LESS   PROMINENT   INSECTS 

The  preceding  list  aims  to  include  all  species  which  are  injurious 
enough  to  possess  real  economic  importance,  but  no  strict  dividing 
line  can  be  drawn.  Special  conditions  may  at  times  favor  the  de- 
velopment of  a  particular  insect  to  such  an 
extent  that  it  may  become  a  serious  pest  for  a 
short  time,  while  ordinarily  of  little  impor- 
tance. Much  depends  upon  conditions  and  en- 
vironment. 

Many  others  are  known  to  attack  bramble 
plants,  some  of  which  are  general  feeders  and 
some  of  which  from  their  very  nature  can  never 
do  serious  damage.  Among  those  which  may 

Fig.  33.   Tarnished    at  times  give  concern  are  the  ones  mentioned 

plant-bug.  below> 

Lygus  pratensis.  „.,  .  .    .     . 

1  he  tarnished  plant-bug,  Lygus  pratensis •,  Linn. 

(Fig.  33),  sometimes  attacks  the  young  fruits  of  blackberries  and 
perhaps  raspberries,  causing  them  to  develop  imperfectly.  No  very 
satisfactory  method  of  control  seems  to  be  available. 

The  raspberry  geometer,  Synchlora  glaucaria,  Guen.,  is  a  small 
caterpillar  which  feeds  on  the  leaves  and  especially  the  fruit  of  the 
raspberry  and  blackberry.  Its  presence  in  the  fruit  is  the  more  an- 
noying because  it  disguises  itself  by  fastening  to  the  thorny  prickles 
of  its  body  bits  of  dried  berry,  seed,  pollen,  leaves  or  other  debris, 


The  Less  Prominent  Insects 


249 


making  it  difficult  to  detect.     No  practical  remedy  seems  to  be 
available. 

The  giant  root-borer,  Prionus  laticollis,  Dm.  (Fig.  34),  is  a  very 
large  beetle,  two  or  three  inches  long,  which  works  in  the  roots  of 
blackberries,  and  other  plants.  Its 
presence  in  the  blackberry  is  indicated 
by  the  sudden  dying  of  one  or  more 
canes  in  a  hill.  The  insect  is  not 
common  and  can  be  controlled  by 
digging  up  and  destroying  the  plants 
when  the  injury  first  appears. 

The  raspberry  leaf-roller,  Exartema 
permundanum,  Clemens,  sometimes  at- 
tacks the  leaves  of  raspberries  and 
blackberries,  webbing  them  together 
in  May  and  June.  The  larva  is  dark 
green  with  a  pitchy-black  head  and 
thoracic  shield.  Although  generally 
distributed  in  the  eastern  states  it 
seldom  does  serious  damage.  Hand- 
picking  or  early  spraying  with  arsenites  will  control  it  if  treatment 
becomes  necessary. 

The  negro-bug,  Corimelcena  pulicaria,  Germar,  causes  trouble  by 
its  presence  hi  ripe  fruit  of  berries  of  all  kinds.  It  is  a  small,  shiny 
black  bug  about  one-eighth  of  an  inch  long,  with  a  white  stripe  on 
each  side  of  the  body.  It  gives  a  disagreeable  "bed-bug  aroma"  to 
the  fruit.  No  feasible  means  of  control  is  known. 

Several  scale  insects  may  become  prevalent  on  brambles  at  times. 
Perhaps  the  commonest  is  the  rose  scale,  others  being  the  oyster- 
shell  and  scurfy  scales  and  the  European  fruit  lecanium. 

Other  enemies  are  leaf-rollers,  the  red-humped  apple  caterpillar, 
climbing  cutworms,  the  apple  leaf-hopper,  flea-beetles,  clover-mite, 
strawberry  root-worms,  and  other  insects. 


34.     Giant   Root-borer. 
Prionus  laticollis. 


CHAPTER  X 
DISEASES  OF  THE  BRAMBLES 

BRAMBLE  plants  are  subject  to  attacks  from  some 
serious  diseases.  So  injurious  are  they  at  times,  and  so 
hard  to  control,  that  the  cultivation  of  one  and  another 
of  these  fruits  has  been  driven  out  of  certain  localities  by 
their  ravages.  Positive  remedies  are  not  easily  found. 
From  their  nature  and  habit  the  plants  do  not  lend  them- 
selves to  treatment  as  well  as  many  other  kinds  of  fruits. 
Sprays  often  do  not  adhere  well,  and  during  much  of  the 
time  when  they  may  be  needed  are  unsafe  because  of  the 
presence  of  the  fruit  upon  the  bushes.  In  some  cases 
more  definite  knowledge  concerning  the  life-history  and 
habits  of  the  pest  may  be  needed.  It  often  happens  that 
careful  methods  of  growing  and  training,  with  frequent 
renewal  of  plantations,  are  the  most  feasible  means  to 
employ.  In  some  cases  such  methods  are  effective,  in 
others  they  are  not. 

The  present  discussion  can  hope  to  add  nothing  to  what 
is  already  known.  Its  aim  is  to  present  in  brief  form  what 
is  known  that  may  be  of  help  to  the  busy  grower  in  his 
fight  with  these  enemies  should  he  meet  them. 

BED   RUST 

Cceoma  inter stitiale,  Schlecht. 

This  disease  was  first  described  by  Schlechtendal  in  1820  under 
the  name  given  above.  Since  then  its  names  have  been  many  and 

250 


Anthracnose  251 

varied,  the  one  in  most  common  use  being  Cceoma  nitens.  Its  rela- 
tionship to  Puccinia  Peckiana  was  supposed  to  be  established  inde- 
pendently in  Germany  and  in  the  United  States  some  years  ago. 
Other  more  recent  studies  throw  doubt  upon  this  relationship  and 
suggest  that  it  may  belong  to  an  entirely  different  genus.  All  this 
is  of  interest  to  the  botanist  but  does  not  concern  the  berry-grower. 

The  appearance  of  this  disease  is  well  known,  both  on  wild  and 
cultivated  plants.  The  orange-red  color  of  thenmder  surface  of  the 
infested  leaves  is  due  to  the  abundance  of  sori,  which  produce  the 
spores  by  means  of  which  the  disease  may  be  spread  from  plant  to 
plant.  These  are  connected  in  chains,  and  form  a  waxy  layer  over 
the  affected  portions.  The  mycelium  of  the  fungus,  which  corre- 
sponds to  the  roots  of  higher  plants,  is  perennial,  living  throughout 
the  winter  in  the  canes  and  roots.  A  plant  once  attacked  is  therefore 
doomed.  Its  vitality  is  sapped,  and  its  condition  is  soon  manifest 
by  the  numerous  small,  weak  canes  which  spring  up. 

Treatment. — Diseased  plants  should  be  rooted  up  and  burned  as 
soon  as  discovered,  to  prevent  the  spore  formation  and  consequent 
spread  of  the  disease.  This,  if  promptly  done,  is  a  practical  remedy. 
Spraying  can  only  help  to  prevent  new  infection.  If  employed 
against  the  anthracnose,  it  will  also  be  of  use  against  red  rust  spores, 
if  they  exist. 
Reference. 

Clinton,  111.,  Expt.  Sta.  Bull.  29:273. 


ANTHRACNOSE 

~v 

Glceosporium  Venetum,  Speg. 

This  disease  is  probably  the  most  serious  fungus,  and  perhaps 
the  most  serious  enemy,  of  raspberries  and  blackberries  now  known. 
It  is  reported  to  have  driven  the  growing  of  black-caps  out  of  the 
region  west  of  Buffalo,  New  York,  and  is  becoming  abundant  on 
Columbian,  the  leading  purple-cane  variety.  It  is  also  a  serious  pest 
in  the  Pacific  Coast  region.  The  fungus  was  first  described  by  an 
Italian  botanist,  M.  Spegazzini,  from  leaves  of  the  northern  cloud- 
berry, Rubus  Chamcemorus.  It  was  first  mentioned  in  the  United 


252  Bush-Fruits 

States  in  the  Agricultural  Review  for  November,  1882,  by  T.  J. 

Burrill,  who  referred  to  it  as  the  raspberry  cane-rust. 

The  gray,  discolored  spots  caused  by  this  fungus  are  well  known 

to  all  berry-growers.  They  are  found  on  all  parts  of  the  plant,  but 
on  the  leaf  are  not  easily  distinguished  from  those  of 
some  other  fungi.  They  often  become  so  numerous 
that  they  destroy  a  large  part  of  the  living  cane  and 
greatly  weaken  or  even  kill  it.  The  disease  seems  to 
be  especially  injurious  just  at  ripening  time.  On  red 
raspberries  its  presence  sometimes  incites  a  warty 
growth  like  that  shown  at  Fig.  35.  This  growth  itself 
may  be  due  to  the  work  of  other  organisms,  especially 
crown  gall  bacteria. 

According  to  Washburn  anthracnose  behaves  differ- 
ently on  different  varieties  in  the  Northwest,  which 
appears  to  be  true  elsewhere.  He  says  that  it  is  chiefly 
confined  to  the  leaves  and  stems  of  Cuthbert,  while 
only  the  leaves  of  Himalaya  Giant  are  attacked.  On 
the  stems  of  Snyder  blackberry  the  spots  reach  three 
or  four  times  the  size  of  a  pinhead,  are  sunken  and 
often  split  when  mature.  They  extend  nearly  through 
the  bark,  run  together,  and  form  irregular  patches 
which  may  partially  girdle  the  cane.  On  the  leaves 
the  spots  are  only  half  the  size  of  a  pinhead,  round, 
white  in  the  center  and  reddish-brown  on  the  margins. 
They  often  run  together  and  the  dead  patches  drop 
out.  But  it  is  on  the  fruit  that  he  finds  the  fungus 
most  injurious.  It  attacks  the  drupelets  at  the  end 

Fig  35  An-  and  usually  at  the  end  of  the  ber]T-  Several  drupe- 
thracnose  in-  lets  in  a  cluster  generally  suffer.  This  may  happen 
citing  knotty  at  any  stage  of  growth  but  usually  when  the  fruit 
raspberry.16  is  stil1  green.  Few  or  many  drupelets  may  be  affected, 
sometimes  all  at  once,  sometimes  spreading  from  one 
to  another.  The  infected  spot  stops  growing  and  turns  a  dull 
reddish-brown.  If  attacked  early  it  dries,  if  late  it  becomes 
soft  and  easily  crushed.  The  drupelets  may  partially  mature 
but  the  berry  is  deformed  and  unsalable.  Lucretia  dewberry 


Anthracnose  253 

is  badly  injured  but  only  the  stems  and  leaves  are  said  to  be 
attacked. 

The  mycelium,  creeping  between  the  plant  cells,  causes  their 
destruction  and  the  consequent  appearance  of  the  dead  spots.  Only 
the  bark  and  cambium  layer  of  the  stems  are  affected  as  a  rule,  the 
mycelium  rarely  entering  the  wood  to  any  extent.  Near  the  center 
of  the  spots  the  mycelium  threads  unite  to  form  a  dense  tuft,  made 
up  of  the  slender  club-shaped  basidia  on  which  the  spores  are  borne. 
These  basidia  are  formed  beneath  the  surface,  but  soon  rupture  it 
and  form  a  minute  globule  outside,  being  covered  with  a  clear, 
gelatinous  substance  which  holds  the  spores  in  place.  When  brought 
in  contact  with  water,  this  substance  readily  dissolves  and  allows 
the  spores  to  float  away.  These  germinate  readily  in  water,  and 
many  of  them  soon  find  lodgment  in  healthy  portions  of  tissue  and 
form  new  centers  of  infection.  If  the  water  which  sets  them  free 
from  the  inclosing  mass  soon  evaporates,  they  are  readily  distributed 
by  the  wind. 

Treatment. — Experiments  have  shown  that  the  spores  germinate 
most  readily  in  pure  water.  It  has  also  been  observed  that  the  spread 
of  the  disease  is  more  rapid  in  wet  weather  than  in  dry  weather.  For 
these  reasons  it  is  advisable  to  so  set  and  train  the  plants  that  they 
shall  have  plenty  of  sunlight  and  air.  Excessive  pinching  of  the  tips, 
causing  the  formation  of  a  dense  head,  is  to  be  avoided.  Neglected 
plantations  or  others  in  which  no  pinching  is  practiced  are  some- 
times free  from  the  disease.  Old  wood  should  be  removed  and 
burned  as  soon  as  fruiting  is  over.  The  removal  of  diseased  wood 
is  seldom  feasible,  since  all  parts  of  the  plant  are  likely  to  be  at- 
tacked. This  should  be  done  in  setting  young  plants,  however, 
if  it  is  impossible  to  get  plants  which  are  entirely  free  from  the 
disease.  Experiments  in  different  states  have  shown  that  careful 
spraying  will  prove  effective  and  in  some  cases  profitable.  Bordeaux 
mixture  in  the  proportion  of  4-4-50  is  advised  before  the  leaves 
appear,  again  when  the  shoots  are  six  inches  high  and  a  third  time 
just  before  the  blossoms  open.  It  should  be  remembered  that  the 
mycelium  remains  alive  in  the  canes  during  winter,  and  that  spray- 
ing can  in  no  way  cure  the  disease.  It  can  only  prevent,  if  thor- 
oughly done,  the  germination  of  spores  as  they  are  produced,  The 


254  Bush-Fruits 

longer  plants  are  allowed  to  remain  the  more  troublesome  is  the 
disease  likely  to  become.     It  is  usually  better,  therefore,  where  it 
is  prevalent,  to  discard  and  remove  plantations  after  three  or  four 
good  crops  have  been  secured. 
References. 

Geneva,  N.  Y.,  Expt.  Sta.  Bull.  124:261. 

Washington  Expt.  Sta.  Bull.  97. 

Burkholder,  Phytopathology,  4:  407. 


RASPBERRY   CANE-BLIGHT 

Leptosphoeria  coniothyrium,  Sacc. 

Raspberry  cane-blight  is  a  disease  which  has  caused  much  loss 
among  commercial  raspberry-growers.  Apparently  it  is  widely  dis- 
tributed and  is  a  serious  enemy  to  combat.  It  attacks  both  red 
raspberries  and  black-caps,  though  blackberries  are  apparently 
exempt.  It  works  chiefly  on  the  fruiting  canes,  though  young  canes 
are  occasionally  seen  to  be  affected.  The  leaves  suddenly  wilt  and 
dry.  Sometimes  the  whole  cane  may  be  affected,  sometimes  only 
a  single  branch,  more  frequently  only  some  part.  With  black-caps 
the  disease  often  starts  from  stubs  left  in  pruning,  gradually  working 
downward  from  branch  to  branch,  sometimes  on  one  side  of  the 
cane  only.  Whenever  the  cane  is  encircled  it  dies.  Sometimes  there 
may  be  several  points  of  attack  on  the  same  cane.  The  bark  where 
attacked  is  usually  lighter  colored  and  smutty,  with  smoke-like 
patches  of  spores.  Sometimes  minute  pimples,  the  spore-cases  of 
the  fungus,  are  visible.  The  diseased  wood  is  much  discolored  and 
very  brittle.  Sometimes,  when  a  large  part  of  the  cane  becomes 
diseased  before  dying,  the  wood  will  crack  and  the  bark  peel  off. 
Canes  may  begin  dying  soon  after  the  leaves  appear  in  spring,  but 
the  trouble  increases  as  the  season  advances  and  becomes  most 
serious  at  ripening  time.  Canes  loaded  with  ripening  fruit  may 
suddenly  wilt  and  dry  up.  The  trouble  does  not  seem  to  spread 
from  a  single  point  of  infection  but  diseased  canes  may  be  found 
here  and  there  all  through  a  plantation.  Thrifty  plantations  seem 
to  suffer  as  much  as  neglected  ones.  Apparently  only  the  canes 


Plate  VIII.  Enemies.  Center,  Cane-blight  of  raspberry.  Left,  Cane- 
knot  of  blackberry.  Right,  cambium  miner  of  red  currant  (Opostega 
nonst ringella) . — Courtesy  of  Geneva,  N.  Y.,  Experiment  Station. 


Raspberry  Cane-blight  255 

are  affected,  neither  the  roots  nor  the  leaves  being  attacked.     A 
diseased  cane  is  shown  at  Plate  VIII. 

In  many  plantations  the  loss  may  not  be  very  serious,  yet  at  times 
it  has  taken  one-fourth  to  one-half  the  crop.  As  a  rule  it  is  more 
destructive  hi  older  plantations,  becoming  more  and  more  serious 
as  the  plants  grow  older.  Yet  the  damage  varies  from  season  to 
season,  and  a  plantation  seriously  affected  one  year  may  sometimes 
suffer  less  the  next.  Damp  weather  during  the  period  of  infection 
doubtless  favors  its  spread,  but  later  weather  conditions  probably 
have  little  influence.  The  fungus  is  supposed  to  gain  entrance  to 
the  young  canes  during  summer  and  autumn,  perhaps  also  the 
following  spring,  when  they  have  become  fruiting  canes. 

Infection  commonly  takes  place  in  wounds  of  various  kinds.  In 
black-caps  it  often  starts  where  the  young  cane  has  been  pinched 
back;  also  wherever  branches  have  been  removed,  rubbed  or  split. 
The  wounds  of  the  tree-cricket  are  a  common  point  of  attack. 

All  varieties  are  affected  but  some  more  seriously  than  others. 
Cuthbert  and  Marlboro,  two  of  the  leading  commercial  red  rasp- 
berries, seem  to  be  particularly  susceptible.  Columbian,  on  the 
other  hand,  is  comparatively  exempt. 

Methods  of  control— jNo  definite  methods  of  fighting  this  trouble 
appear  to  be  available.  Spraying  does  not  seem  to  have  given 
results  of  much  promise.  The  disease  is  readily  carried  in  young 
plants,  hence  the  first  precaution  is  to  secure  healthy  stock  if  possi- 
ble. This,  in  turn,  should  be  planted  on  uninfected  soil,  where 
raspberries  have  not  been  previously  grown.  Removing  and  burn- 
ing the  old  canes  as  soon  as  fruiting  is  over  is  a  wise  precaution, 
since  it  is  upon  these  old  canes  that  the  spores  are  being  ripened. 
In  setting  young  plants,  as  little  of  the  old  cane  as  possible  should 
be  left  if  there  is  reason  to  suspect  that  they  carry  any  of  the  disease. 
This  fungus  is  probably  largely  responsible  for  the  fact  that  rasp- 
berry plantations  must  be  so  frequently  renewed  in  order  to  pro- 
duce profitable  crops. 
Reference. 

Geneva,  N.  Y.,  Expt.  Sta.  Bull.  226. 


256 


Bush-Fruits 


SPUR-BLIGHT   OF   RED    RASPBERRIES    (FlG.  36) 

Mycosphcerella  rubina,  Jacz. 

This  disease  appears  in  the  form  of  brown  or  bluish-black  spots 
on  the  young  canes  of  red  raspberries,  in  late  summer  or  early  au- 
tumn. The  spots  may  be  from  one  to 
four  inches  long  and  may  extend  partially 
or  wholly  around  the  cane.  The  bound- 
aries are  sharply  defined  but  only  the  bark 
is  affected,  the  cane  itself  being  uninjured. 
The  disease  is  common  on  red  raspberries 
and  is  also  found  on  Purple-Cane  varie- 
ties, but  not  on  black-caps.  During  winter 
the  spots  change  to  a  light  gray  color  and 
the  boundaries  become  indistinct.  In 
spring  they  are  thickly  studded  with  small 
black  spore-cases,  known  as  perithecia,  but 
the  wood  is  still  uncolored  and  the  cane  ap- 
parently uninjured  in  growth.  In  this 
respect  it  differs  decidedly  from  the  cane- 
blight. 

Recent  investigations  at  the  Colorado 
Station  show  that  the  disease  may  do  con- 
siderable damage  by  killing  the  buds  and 
thereby  preventing  the  formation  of 
branches  on  the  lower  portion  of  the  cane. 
Hence  the  name  spur-blight.  It  appears 
highly  probable  that  the  disease  may  be 
controlled  by  the  use  of  bordeaux  mixture, 
Spur-blight  of  the  first  application  being  made  when  the 
new  canes  are  a  few  inches  high,  a  second 
one  shortly  before  the  blooming  period  and  a  third  soon  after  the 
fruit  is  harvested;  but  it  is  doubtful  if  the  damage  done  is  suffi- 
cient to  warrant  the  expense  of  spraying. 

This  trouble  was  formerly  thought  to  be  due  to  a  bacterial  disease 
and  was  figured  as  such  in  a  previous  edition  of  the  present  work. 


Fig. 


36. 

raspberry. 


Leaf-Spots  257 

Studies  made  at  the  Geneva,  New  York,  Experiment  Station  have 

shown  this  to  be  a  mistake. 

References. 

Geneva,  N.  Y.,  Expt.  Sta.  Bull.  226. 

Colorado  Expt.  Sta.  Bull.  206. 

BLUE-STEM    OF   BLACK   RASPBERRY 

Acrostalagmus  caulophagus,  Lawrence 

This  is  a  disease  which  has  proved  very  destructive  on  the  Pacific 
Coast,  especially  in  Washington.  It  first  appears  on  the  canes, 
which  become  discolored  and  dark,  or  rarely  blue-black.  It  is  most 
conspicuous  toward  the  base  and  on  the  most  vigorous  plants.  On 
the  young  shoots  the  blue-black  color  may  spread  over  the  entire 
shoot  in  the  course  of  a  few  days.  The  leaves  wilt  and  turn  yellow, 
then  brown.  The  fruit  only  partially  develops  and  is  dry,  coarse 
and  tasteless.  The  fungus  may  gradually  work  its  way  back  into 
the  roots,  causing  a  reddish  or  brown  discoloration  of  the  wood. 
It  is  thought  to  live  over  winter  in  the  soil  and  enter  the  plant  at 
the  crown,  working  upward.  It  has  also  been  found  on  the  roots 
of  red  raspberry  and  blackberry  but  is  not  common  there.  It  is 
very  destructive  at  times  and  may  cause  a  loss  of  a  considerable 
portion  of  the  crop. 

Little  definite  experimental  work  appears  to  have  been  done  in 
trying  to  control  it.    Spraying,  so  far  as  tried,  seemed  to  be  of  no 
value. 
Reference. 

Wash.  Expt.  Sta.  Bull.  108. 

LEAF-SPOTS 

Several  species  of  fungi  attack  the  leaves  of  brambles,  causing 
leaf -spots.  Among  the  more  common  and  best  known  are  Septoria 
Rubi,  West.,  with  two  botanical  varieties  and  Cylindrosporium  Rubi, 
Ell.  and  Morgan. 

These  two  species  differ  in  their  botanical  characters  but  are 
very  similar  in  their  general  appearance  on  the  leaves.  Both  cause 
small  brown  or  light-colored  spots,  and  when  abundant  may  do  harm 


258  Bush-Fruits 

by  the  amount  of  leaf-tissue  which  is  destroyed.  Attempts  to  con- 
trol the  trouble  by  spraying  seem  thus  far  not  to  have  given  results 
of  much  promise. 

LEAP-RUSTS 

Two  species  of  Phragmidium,  one  on  blackberries,  the  other  on 
raspberries,  are  prevalent  and  sometimes  abundant,  though  seldom 
considered  injurious.  They  are  found  on  the  under  side  of  the  leaves 
and  would  be  difficult  to  combat.  Blackberries  are  sometimes  at- 
tacked also  by  late  rust  which,  as  its  name  implies,  appears  late  in 
the  season.  It  is  caused  by  the  fungus  Kuehneola  uridinis  (Lk.) 
Arth. 

DOUBLE-BLOSSOM  (Fig.  37) 

Fusarium  Ruin,  Winter 

This  disease  is  very  destructive  on  certain  varieties  of  dewberries 
and  blackberries,  from  New  Jersey  southward  along  the  coast,  but 
especially  in  the  Delaware-Maryland  Peninsula.  It  is  known  to 
occur  on  several  species  of  Rubus  but  is  especially  severe  on  Lucretia 
dewberry  and  Rathbun  blackberry.  It  is  re- 
ported to  have  been  so  destructive  to  Lucretia 
on  the  above  peninsula  as  to  drive  one-half 
the  growers  out  of  the  business.  The  life  of  a 
field  of  berries  is  often  shortened  two  or  more 
years  by  its  ravages. 

The  disease  becomes  noticeable  when  the 
leaf -buds  open,  the  diseased  buds  usually  being 
larger  than  normal  ones.     They  are  often  ac- 
37.     Double-     companied  by  One  or  more  small  buds  at  the 
side.    The  diseased  buds  produce  "  witches' 

brooms"  instead  of  normal  shoots.  These  may  consist  of  a  mass 
of  short  slender  twigs  or  of  one  good  shoot,  somewhat  reduced, 
with  several  short  deformed  ones.  Such  diseased  shoots  often  remain 
green  after  the  old  canes  are  dead.  The  blossoms  usually  have  en- 
larged, thickened  sepals  and  petals,  and  sometimes  more  than  the 
usual  number.  The  petals  are  generally  wrinkled,  giving  the  blos- 
som the  appearance  of  being  double. 
The  disease  generally  appears  about  the  second  year  of  fruiting 


Crown-Gall  259 

and  increases  from  year  to  year  until  the  plantation  becomes  worth- 
less. On  old  plants  every  bud  is  sometimes  deformed.  Unlike  most 
plant  diseases  this  one  does  not  seem  to  vary  in  destructiveness  in 
different  seasons  except  as  it  steadily  increases.  The  affected  flower- 
buds  either  die  or  produce  only  worthless  fruit. 

The  mycelium  of  the  fungus  is  found  within  the  diseased  leaf -buds 
and  is  especially  abundant  within  the  flower-buds.  Spores  are  pro- 
duced within  forty-eight  hours  after  the  flower-buds  open.  These 
spores  are  carried  to  the  young  buds  of  the  current  year's  growth, 
germinate  and  produce  mycelium  which  remains  practically  dormant 
within  the  bud  during  winter.  Canes  or  parts  of  canes  covered  with 
grass  are  seldom  affected.  The  mycelium  develops  rapidly  in  spring 
but  does  not  penetrate  the  tissues  of  the  plant  and  pass  back  into 
the  stem,  a  fortunate  fact. 

Treatment. — Spraying  has  not  proved  effective  against  this  dis- 
ease. The  fact  that  the  spores  are  produced  during  the  period  of 
bloom  and  fruit-growth  indicates  that  it  will  not  be  a  feasible  method 
of  control.  Since  the  fungus  does  not  reach  beyond  the  base  of  the 
bud  it  is  possible  to  control  it  by  hand-picking  the  diseased  buds. 
This  should  be  done  as  soon  as  the  leaf-buds  open.  They  can  then 
be  readily  seen,  but  later  are  more  difficult  to  find.  Experiments  in 
Delaware  indicate  that  this  is  cheaper  than  spraying  would  be  if 
effective.  It  has  not  been  possible  to  entirely  eradicate  the  disease, 
but  it  has  been  held  in  check.  The  yield  has  been  better,  the  fruit 
of  better  quality  and  the  life  of  the  plantation  prolonged  from  one 
to  two  years.  Plants  for  setting  should  preferably  be  taken  from 
young  plantations,  since  the  disease  is  less  prevalent  in  new  fields. 
Reference. 

Cook,  Del.  Expt.  Sta.  BuU.  93. 

CROWN-GALL 

Bacterium  tumefaciens,  Smith  et  al. 

This  disease  is  characterized  by  a  rough  knotty  growth  about  the 
stem  of  plants  at  the  surface  of  the  ground,  on  the  roots  beneath, 
or  on  the  canes  or  branches.  The  knots  or  galls,  in  their  commonest 
form,  have  a  rough  or  granular  appearance,  somewhat  resembling, 
when  young,  the  callous  growth  at  the  end  of  a  cutting.  When  old 


260 


Bush-Fruits 


they  look  something  like  the  black 
knot  in  plums,  but  are  seldom  so 
dark  in  color.  In  Germany  the  dis- 
ease is  known  as  "Wurzelkropf."  It 
has  ruined  thousands  of  trees  in  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  United  States  and 
is  one  of  the  dreaded  enemies  of  the 
nurseryman  and  orchardist.  The 
cause  of  the  malady  was  long  in 
doubt,  it  having  been  attributed  to 
eelworms,  slime-moulds  and  other 
agencies  at  different  times  in  the 
past.  It  is  now  believed  to  be  a 
bacterial  disease.  It  is  found  on 
daisy,  poplar,  rose,  peach,  apple, 
raspberry,  blackberry,  and  many 
other  plants.  It  is  either  due  to  the 
same  or  closely  related  organisms,  as 
in  the  case  of  the  legume  bacteria. 
It  is  the  same  disease  whether  on 
the  roots,  stems,  branches,  or  at  the 
crown  of  the  plant.  The  bacteria 
live  within  the  cells  of  the  plant. 
Galls  are  most  readily  produced  in 
soft,  growing  tissue  and  especially 
wherever  wounds  or  injuries  occur. 
This  doubtless  led  to  the  belief  at 
one  time  common  among  nursery- 
men, that  the  swellings  were  simply 
due  to  injuries  of  different  kinds. 
The  disease  has  been  very  carefully 
studied  by  the  Bureau  of  Plant  In- 
dustry at  Washington.  Many  cross 
Fig.  38.  Root-gall  of  raspberry,  inoculations  were  made,  as  from 
peach  to  raspberry,  blackberry,  and  the  like,  and  even  from  daisy 
to  many  other  plants.  The  beginning  of  the  gall  could  sometimes 
be  detected  as  early  as  the  fourth  day  after  the  inoculation  was 


Raspberry  Yellows  or  Mosaic  261 

made.  The  disease  is  even  found  on  legumes,  sometimes  being  mis- 
taken for  the  nodules  of  nitrogen-gathering  bacteria.  A  character- 
istic gall  as  found  on  raspberry  roots  is  shown  at  Fig.  38.  A  knot 
on  a  blackberry  cane  may  be  seen  in  Plate  VIII. 

The  galls  sometimes  afford  lodgment  for  other  parasites,  such  as 
fire-blight,  root-rot,  and  the  like.  Overfed  plants  seem  most  subject 
to  attack.  The  more  vigorous  a  plant  the  larger  the  tumor,  as  a  rule. 
Hairy-root  of  the  apple  is  due  to  the  same  or  to  a  very  closely  related 
bacterium. 

A  very  peculiar  and  interesting  fact  in  connection  with  this  dis- 
ease is  that  in  its  habit  of  growth  and  development  and  in  the  forma- 
tion of  connecting  "stroma"  it  is  very  similar  to  the  development 
of  cancer  in  man.  Apparently  it  may  very  properly  be  called  a 
plant  cancer,  as  suggested  by  those  who  have  given  it  most  careful 
study  in  recent  years. 

Treatment. — No  cure  is  known  for  the  trouble.  The  bacteria  are 
out  of  reach,  where  no  external  treatment  can  affect  them.  Affected 
stock  of  all  kinds  should  be  scrupulously  avoided;  neither  should 
healthy  stock  be  planted  on  infected  land.  The  disease  is  very 
prevalent  among  red  raspberries  and  blackberries,  the  so-called 
cane-knot  of  the  latter  being  apparently  only  one  form  of  it.  For 
this  reason  it  may  be  unwise  to  plant  these  fruits  among  valuable 
young  orchard  trees.  Rigorous  nursery  inspection  in  many  of  our 
states  is  now  doing  much  to  reduce  the  spread  of  this  disease. 
Reference. 

Bur.  of  Plant  Indust.  Bulls.  213  and  255. 

RASPBERRY   YELLOWS   OR  MOSAIC 

Raspberry  yellows  is  a  troublesome  disease  which  is  not  well  under- 
stood, its  cause  being  as  yet  unknown.  It  is  of  such  frequent  oc- 
currence on  Marlboro  plantations  that  it  is  frequently  spoken  of 
as  the  Marlboro  disease.  Plants  attacked  by  it  have  a  stunted, 
yellowish  appearance,  somewhat  suggestive  of  the  Bermuda  lily 
disease.  The  fruiting  branches  are  small,  often  not  over  half  their 
usual  length.  The  leaves  are  small,  curled  downward  at  the  edges, 
and  faintly  mottled  with  yellow.  Some  of  the  berries  dry  up  with- 
out ripening;  others  ripen  but  are  small  and  flavorless.  Many  of 


262  Bush-Fruits 

the  leaves  also  wither.  New  canes  do  not  appear  to  be  seriously  af- 
fected. The  leaves  do  not  wither  but  some  of  them  may  be  much 
mottled,  while  others  are  normal.  The  canes  themselves  seldom 
show  injury,  and  the  roots  appear  to  be  unaffected. 

Control. — No  remedy  or  preventive  is  known.     Experiments  in 
spraying  and  in  methods  of  fertilizing  under  the  direction  of  the 
Geneva,  N.  Y.,  Experiment  Station,  proved  of  no  avail. 
References. 

Geneva,  N.  Y.,  Expt.  Sta.  Bull.  226. 

Melchers,  Ohio  Naturalist,  Vol.  14,  No.  6,  pp.  281-288,  Apr.,  1914. 

TOADSTOOLS 

A  toadstool  fungus,  Armillaria  mellea,  is  reported  to  cause  much 
damage  to  raspberries  and  blackberries  in  the  state  of  Washington, 
though  the  toadstool  itself  is  not  commonly  found. 

No  cure  is  known.    Removing  and  burning  affected  plants  is  the 
only  remedy  suggested. 
Reference. 

Wash.  Expt.  Sta.  Bull.  3,  Special  series. 


PART  III 
THE  GROSELLES 

There  is  no  English  word  in  use  which  includes  both 
currants  and  gooseberries.  Since  there  is  an  evident 
need  for  such  a  term,  the  word  groselle  was  adopted  in 
the  original  edition  of  this  book.  This  is  a  modification 
of  the  old  French  word  groiselle,  or  groisselle,  which 
was  used  for  both  these  fruits  before  a  separate  term 
was  employed  to  designate  the  currant.  The  present 
French  word  groseille,  meaning  a  gooseberry,  also  for- 
merly included  both. 

CHAPTER  XI 
CURRANTS 

THE  currant,  though  less  extensively  cultivated  than 
some  of  the  other  small  fruits,  fills  an  important  place  in 
the  pomology  of  our  country.  Its  sprightly  and  healthful 
qualities  render  it  desirable  to  the  consumer,  and  its 
staple  character  makes  it  a  comparatively  safe  crop  for 
the  producer.  It  is  almost  wholly  a  northern  fruit,  having 
no  commercial  importance  in  the  southern  states.  Neither 
currants  nor  gooseberries  receive  notice  in  "  Florida 
Fruits/'  by  Helen  Harcourt,  though  other  small  fruits  do. 
It  does  not  prosper  in  hot  and  dry  climates.  Even  in 

263 


264  Bush-Fruits 

Nebraska  it  does  not  succeed  well.  The  plants  thrive 
and  look  healthy,  but  are  comparatively  unproductive. 
The  fruit  is  but  little  seen  in  market,  which  is  probably 
the  result  of  unfavorable  experience. 

The  total  area  devoted  to  currants  in  the  United  States, 
as  reported  in  the  census  of  1910,  is  7,862  acres.  The 
total  production  is  given  as  10,448,532  quarts,  valued  at 
$790,431.  The  Middle  Atlantic  section  leads  in  produc- 
tion, with  an  area  of  3,239  acres.  The  smallest  area  is 
found  in  the  East  South  Central  division,  which  reports 
only  16  acres.  This  is  followed  by  the  West  South  Cen- 
tral and  the  South  Atlantic  sections,  with  46  and  80  acres 
respectively. 

The  total  area  under  cultivation  ten  years  before,  in 
1899,  was  12,863  acres.  This  shows  a  decrease  of  5,003 
acres  or  about  39  per  cent  within  that  decade.  All  small 
fruits  show  a  decrease  during  that  period  but  with  none 
of  the  others  is  the  percentage  so  great.  With  black- 
berries and  dewberries  the  falling  off  is  but  slight,  and 
comparatively  unimportant  with  strawberries.  Since  the 
currant  crop  is  one  easily  grown,  this  seems  to  indicate 
that  the  demand  is  not  keeping  pace  with  that  for  other 
fruits. 

There  seems  to  have  been  a  boom  in  currant  culture 
about  1856,  so  that  American  nurserymen  were  not  able 
to  keep  pace  with  the  demand.1  In  later  years  there  was 
but  little  fluctuation,  the  demand  having  been  steady  but 
limited.  The  market  for  currants  is  entirely  different 
from  that  for  other  small  fruits,  such  as  strawberries, 
raspberries  and  blackberries.  Although  a  healthful  and 
1  Horticulturist,  1856  :  210. 


Soil  and  Location  265 

appetizing  dessert  fruit,  it  appears  to  be  little  used  for 
that  purpose.  Where  hundreds  of  crates  of  strawberries 
are  consumed  each  year  and  where  raspberries  are  always 
in  demand,  it  is  often  difficult  to  dispose  of  one  crate  of 
currants,  to  the  grocers  who  handle  other  fruits.  Appar- 
ently they  are  little  used  except  for  jelly,  and  few  even 
for  that.  For  many  growers  the  only  market  is  the  whole- 
sale one  in  some  distant  city.  This  means  that  the  crop 
must  be  grown  on  a  wholesale  plan  if  any  profit  is  to  result. 

SOIL  AND    LOCATION 

Currants  will  thrive  and  bear  some  fruit  on  almost  any 
soil,  but  their  natural  habitat  indicates  that  to  produce 
really  satisfactory  and  profitable  crops  they  need  a  cool 
and  moist  soil.  Experience  has  fully  demonstrated  this 
fact.  The  best  results  are,  therefore,  to  be  expected  from 
strong  clay  loams.  Even  a  stiff  clay,  under  good  culture, 
will  be  found  satisfactory.  Strong,  moist,  sandy  loams, 
if  not  too  light,  are  also  good.  In  the  selection  of  a  site, 
the  natural  habitat  of  the  plant  will  point  to  a  cool  north- 
ern exposure.  A  proper  site  may  in  part  offset  the  dis- 
advantage of  an  unfavorable  soil.  Low,  moist  ground, 
with  some  reduction  in  the  intensity  of  the  sun's  rays, 
will  be  found  advantageous.  For  this  reason  the  currant 
often  thrives  well  in  orchards.  This  is  most  satisfactory 
in  those  regions  approaching  the  limit  of  its  adaptability 
to  culture.  For  family  use,  it  may  be  planted  on  the 
north  side  of  buildings  or  fences.  Mulching  tends  to  ac- 
complish the  same  end,  since  it  keeps  the  soil  shaded  and 
cool. 


266  Bush-Fruits 

Regions  somewhat  elevated  are  generally  more  satis- 
factory than  lower  altitudes,  especially  toward  the  south- 
ern limits  of  its  range.  In  Pennsylvania  better  fruit  is 
said  to  be  produced  at  an  elevation  of  1,000  feet  than 
on  plateaus  near  the  sea.  The  leaves  fall  earlier  on  the 
lower  lands,  and  the  fruit  is  smaller  in  consequence  the 
succeeding  year. 

FERTILIZERS 

The  currant  is  a  rank  feeder,  and  needs  a  rich  soil,  with 
liberal  fertilizing.  Yet  the  roots  are  small  and  fibrous, 
and  do  not  extend  far  for  food.  It  must  be  supplied  in 
liberal  quantities  and  close  at  hand.  While  no  fruit  will 
live  and  apparently  thrive  under  greater  neglect  than  will 
the  currant,  it  is  equally  true  that  no  fruit  will  more 
quickly  or  fully  respond  to  liberal  treatment.  Too  often 
it  is  relegated  to  the  fence  corners,  without  care  or  culture, 
there  to  battle  with  sod,  currant- worms  and  leaf -spot  from 
year  to  year.  Little  wonder  that  the  returns  are  sour  and 
small! 

Liberal  applications  of  stable-manure,  preferably  in 
the  fall  or  winter,  supplemented  with  the  addition  of 
wood  ashes,  or  potash  in  the  form  of  commercial  fertilizers, 
in  the  spring,  are  always  in  order.  Currants  contain  1  0.11 
per  cent  of  phosphoric  acid  and  0.27  per  cent  of  potash, 
while  stable-manure  contains  only  about  one-third  more 
potash  than  phosphoric  acid,  which  suggests  the  need  of 
additional  potash.  There  is  little  danger  of  too  rank 
growth  or  of  diminished  fruitfulness  from  an  excess  of 
stable-manure.  Observations  at  the  Massachusetts  State 
1  Exp.  Sta.  Handbook,  p.  402. 


Propagation  267 

Experiment  Station  1  show  that  the  desirable  qualities 
of  the  fruit  were  increased  in  every  case  by  the  applica- 
tion of  potash  fertilizers.  A  comparison  of  sulfate  and 
muriate  of  potash  at  the  Geneva  (New  York)  Experiment 
Station  showed  no  practical  difference  in  favor  of  either.2 
To  sum  up,  fertilizing  for  the  currant  does  not  differ  from 
that  required  for  other  fruits,  except  that  it  needs  to  be 
more  liberal  than  in  most  other  cases,  if  satisfactory  re- 
turns are  to  be  obtained. 


PKOPAGATION 

Currants  are  readily  propagated  from  hardwood  cut- 
tings made  from  well-ripened  shoots  of  one  season's 
growth.  The  cuttings  may  be  taken  and  planted  either 
in  fall  or  in  spring,  but  the  common  custom  among  nursery- 
men is  to  take  them  in  early  autumn,  as  soon  as  the  leaves 
mature.  The  leaves  commonly  begin  falling  as  early  as 
August,  but  they  are  frequently  stripped  a  week  or  so 
before  the  cuttings  are  taken,  which  is  usually  done  the 
last  of  August  or  first  of  September.  They  may  then  be 
planted  at  once,  or  tied  in  bundles  and  buried  upside  down 
with  two  inches  of  soil  over  the  butts.  In  this  position 
they  may  callus,  and  even  form  roots,  before  winter. 

They  may  be  taken  up  and  planted  later,  removed  to 
a  cellar  and  buried  in  sand  during  the  winter,  or  be  given 
an  additional  covering  and  be  left  where  they  are  until 
spring.  If  planting  is  deferred  until  spring,  it  must  be 
done  very  early,  as  they  begin  growth  at  a  low  tempera- 

1  Mass.  Agr.  Kept.  1884  :  444.    Exp.  Station  Bull.  7. 

2  Annual  Kept.  1890  :  283. 


268  Bush-Fruits 

ture,  and  must  receive  attention  at  the  earliest  possible 
moment.  The  commoner  practice  is  to  plant  in  nursery 
rows  soon  after  the  cuttings  are  taken.  They  are  said  to 
root  more  quickly  if  packed  in  damp  moss  a  week  or  two 
before  planting.  The  cuttings  are  ordinarily  made  from 
six  to  eight  inches  long,  though  the  older  writings  recom- 
mended them  to  be  a  foot  long.  The  base  should  be 
formed  with  a  clean,  square  cut  just  beneath  a  bud.  The 
top  is  commonly  a  slanting  cut  some  distance  above  the 
uppermost  bud. 

Planting  may  be  by  means  of  a  spade,  but  is  more  con- 
veniently and  rapidly  done  by  plowing  furrows  and  setting 
the  cuttings  against  the  land-side  of  the  furrow.  One  or 
two  buds  only  are  left  above  the  surface  of  the  ground,  and 
the  earth  should  be  firmly  packed  about  the  base  of  the 
cuttings.  If  set  early  in  September,  many  of  the  plants 
will  form  roots  and  establish  themselves  before  winter, 
being  in  condition  to  begin  growth  immediately  in  spring. 
As  freezing  weather  approaches,  a  shovel  plow  is  some- 
times run  through  the  rows,  in  order  to  throw  the  earth 
toward  but  not  over  the  cuttings.  This  leaves  a  depres- 
sion along  the  rows,  and  the  plants  are  then  easily  pro- 
tected by  covering  with  straw  or  coarse  manure.  Mulch- 
ing in  some  form  is  essential  during  the  winter,  if  the 
cuttings  are  planted  in  the  fall.  Rich  land  should  be 
selected,  and  heavy  dressings  of  well-rotted  manure  are 
useful. 

G.  A.  Marshall,  of  Arlington,  Nebraska,  an  experienced 
nurseryman,  gives  the  following  method  of  propagation. 
As  soon  as  the  leaves  fall,  which  is  about  September  first, 
the  cuttings  are  made,  nine  inches  long.  Much  of  the 


Plate  IX.  One-year  currants. 


Propagation  269 

success  of  the  operation  depends  on  long  cuttings  in  the 
dry  climate  and  light  soil  of  Nebraska.  They  are  then 
buried  with  the  butts  up  and  about  three  inches  beneath 
the  surface  of  the  ground.  About  the  first  of  November 
they  are  taken  up  and  planted  in  nursery  rows,  and  a 
ridge  of  earth  thrown  over  them  so  that  they  are  covered 
about  two  inches  deep.  In  the  spring  this  covering  is 
raked  away,  so  that  the  tips  are  left  just  below  the  surface 
of  the  ground.  This  method  is  interesting,  because  it 
shows  something  of  the  modifications  demanded  by  a  dry 
climate. 

Single-eye  cuttings  under  glass,  or  greenwood  cuttings, 
may  be  used,  but  are  less  satisfactory  than  hardwood 
cuttings,  and  are  only  used  under  special  circumstances. 
Plants  may  also  be  grown  from  layers,  and  even  from 
tip  layers,  like  the  black  raspberries,  but  these  methods 
have  little  to  recommend  them.  It  was  formerly  advised 
to  cut  out  all  the  lower  buds  in  planting  cuttings,  in  order 
to  insure  a  tree  form  of  growth,  but  this  is  seldom  prac- 
ticed now.  Plants  so  grown  are  of  interest  as  curiosities 
or  novelties,  but  are  not  satisfactory  in  field  culture. 

New  varieties  are  grown  from  seeds,  whicn  should  be 
taken  as  soon  as  the  fruit  is  ripe.  They  may  be  washed 
from  the  pulp  and  dried  like  vegetable  seeds,  but  it  is 
better  to  sow  or  mix  them  with  sand  at  once,  and  not 
allow  them  to  dry.  If  mixed  with  sand,  they  should  be 
buried  or  kept  in  a  cool,  shady  place,  and  sown  very  early 
in  spring.  They  may  be  sown,  not  over  half  an  inch  deep, 
in  flats  or  in  the  open  ground,  in  fine,  rich  and  mellow  soil. 
Partial  shade  and  a  light  mulch  of  fine  manure  will  aid  in 
retaining  moisture  and  prevent  the  ground  from  baking. 


270  Bush-Fruits 

The  seeds  germinate  at  a  low  temperature,  and  are  likely 
to  start  too  early  unless  kept  in  a  shaded  place.  If  sown 
at  once  in  flats,  the  flats  can  be  kept  in  a  cool,  shaded 
place  during  the  winter,  and  given  partial  exposure  in 
spring.  Plunging  them  in  the  soil  will  aid  in  preserving 
moisture,  and  covering  with  a  wire  screen  will  insure  safety 
from  destruction  by  mice  or  other  animals.  If  a  green- 
house is  available  they  may  be  brought  inside  toward 
spring,  where  the  seeds  will  germinate  quickly.  The  young 
plants  may  be  potted  off  when  two  or  three  inches  high, 
and  planted  out  when  well  established. 

PLANTING 

The  first  essential  in  planting  fruit  is  a  thorough  prep- 
aration of  the  soil.  For  currants,  the  land  should  receive 
a  heavy  dressing  of  stable-manure,  and  be  plowed  deep. 
If  the  underlying  layers  are  hard  and  impervious  to  roots 
and  moisture,  subsoiling  may  be  of  value.  Under-draining 
will  be  better.  One  may  choose  almost  any  distance  apart 
to  set  the  plants,  and  find  it  recommended  somewhere  in 
horticultural  literature.  The  distances  advocated  vary 
from  three-by-four  feet  to  five-by-eight  feet,  with  every 
possible  intermediate  combination.  Rows  six  feet  apart, 
with  the  plants  four  feet  apart  in  the  rows,  will  generally 
be  satisfactory.  If  the  design  is  to  cultivate  both  ways, 
five  feet  apart  each  way  may  be  better.  Cross-cultivation 
is  commonly  only  needed  at  intervals,  and  the  wider  row 
should  be  in  the  direction  most  convenient  for  cultivating. 

The  land  should  be  in  fine,  mellow  tilth,  as  deep  as 
plowed.  It  should  then  be  marked  both  ways,  with  fur- 


Subsequent  Tillage  271 

rows  in  one  direction.  It.  will  be  still  better  if  these 
furrows  are  made  deeper  than  necessary  to  receive  the 
plants,  in  order  to  insure  their  being  set  in  a  well-fined  bed. 
The  setting  is  easily  done  by  placing  the  plants  against 
the  land-side  of  the  furrow  and  drawing  the  earth  about 
them,  packing  it  firmly  with  the  feet.  No  one  point  is 
more  essential  than  this  thorough  firming  of  the  soil 
about  the  roots.  A  layer  of  loose,  fine  soil  should  be  left 
at  the  surface,  to  act  as  a  mulch  and  prevent  the  packed 
soil  beneath  from  drying  out.  The  remainder  of  the  fur- 
row may  be  filled  in  as  cultivation  progresses  later  on. 
One-year-old  plants,  if  vigorous  and  well  grown,  are  quite 
as  satisfactory  and  cost  less  money.  They  are  easily  set, 
meet  with  little  check  in  transplanting,  and  make  a 
better  growth  than  if  left  in  the  crowded  nursery  row  dur- 
ing the  same  time. 

The  earliness  of  the  currant  in  starting  into  growth  in 
spring  is  a  point  in  favor  of  fall  planting.  This  depends 
so  much  upon  climate  that  it  is  unsafe  to  lay  down  a 
general  rule.  Throughout  the  western  plains,  where  the 
winters  are  dry  and  open,  fall  planting  is  always  uncertain, 
though  with  careful  protection  it  may  succeed.  Whatever 
the  location,  if  the  planting  is  undertaken  early  enough 
in  spring  there  is  nothing  to  fear.  If  neglected  until  the 
plants  have  started  into  growth,  the  check  must  always 
seriously  affect  the  first  season's  results. 

SUBSEQUENT   TILLAGE 

Cultivation  of  the  currant  should  be  shallow.  The 
roots  run  near  the  surface,  and  are  likely  to  be  injured  by 


272  Bush-Fruits 

plowing,  or  even  by  the  ordinary  cultivator.  Frequent 
stirring  of  the  soil  with  a  light  harrow-tooth  cultivator  or 
a  spring-tooth  cultivator  having  the  teeth  set  well  back, 
is  most  desirable.  It  may  be  owing  to  this  habit  of  shallow 
rooting,  that  both  the  currant  and  the  gooseberry  succeed 
especially  well  with  mulching.  Any  refuse  material  like 
straw,  weeds,  wild  grass,  or  even  coal  ashes,  may  be  used. 
The  mulching  not  only  replaces  cultivation  in  keeping 
down  weeds  and  retaining  moisture,  but  helps  to  keep 
the  fruit  clean  as  well.  This  is  a  good  way  to  grow  cur- 
rants for  family  use,  especially  if  they  occupy  small  or 
inaccessible  corners  of  the  yard  or  garden,  where  cultiva- 
tion is  inconvenient  or  must  be  done  by  hand.  In  the 
well-arranged  fruit-garden,  where  the  plants  occupy  def- 
inite rows,  and  also  in  field  culture,  cultivation  is  more 
practicable  than  mulching. 

PRUNING 

Pruning  the  currant  is  often  neglected,  yet  productive- 
ness is  largely  dependent  on  it.  Plants  will  produce  some 
fruit  no  matter  how  treated,  hence  are  likely  to  be  treated 
very  indifferently.  The  fruit  is  borne  both  on  old  and 
on  young  wood.  That  which  is  best,  and  the  most  of  it,  is 
formed  near  the  base  of  the  one-year-old  shoots  and  on 
short  one-year-old  spurs  from  the  older  wood.  Conse- 
quently, most  of  the  young  wood  may  be  cut  away,  or  the 
old  wood  may  be  cut  out,  leaving  young  shoots,  and  fruit 
will  still  be  produced.  The  younger  the  wood  the  finer  the 
fruit,  as  a  rule,  but  the  plants  are  likely  to  be  less  produc- 
tive unless,  a  fair  supply  of  wood  more  than  one  year  old  is 


Pruning 


273 


left.     Yet  this  older  wood  soon  becomes  weak,  and  pro- 
duces small  and  inferior  fruit. 

The  older  plan  of  training  to  a  tree  form  (Fig.  39),  by 
removing  the  lower  buds  from  the  cuttings  when  planted, 
is  now  practically 
discarded.  The 
plants  are  less  pro- 
ductive, and  if  at- 
tacked by  the  cur- 
rant borer,  the 
whole  plant  is  de- 
stroyed instead  of 
a  single  stalk,  as 
when  grown  in  the 
bush  form.  If  the 
tree  form  is  desired 
for  novelty  or  orna- 
ment, six  or  eight 
shoots  are  selected, 
as  the  bush  devel- 
ops, to  form  perma- 
nent branches. 
These  are  cut  back 
to  four  to  six  inches 
every  year  till  the 
bush  is  full  grown, 
and  afterward  to 
only  two  or  three 
buds.  All  lateral  shoots  are  cut  to  within  an  inch  of  the  old 
wood  each  year. 

For  practical  field  culture,  from  four  to  eight  main 


Fig.  39.  Tree-form  currant. 


274  Bush-Fruits 

stems  are  allowed,  and  these  should  be  frequently  re- 
newed. Wood  over  three  years  old  should  seldom  be  al- 
lowed to  remain.  Some  expert  growers  of  long  experience 
say  that  none  over  two  years  old  should  be  left.  Super- 
fluous young  shoots  should  also  be  cut  away,  but  the  buds 
at  the  base  of  these  may  well  be  left,  as  they  develop  into 
fruit-bearing  spurs.  A  difference  of  opinion  exists  in  re- 
gard to  cutting  back  the  young  growth.  The  longer  the 
old  wood  is  left  the  greater  will  be  the  demand  for  cutting 
back.  This  method  may  give  increased  productiveness, 
but  finer  fruit  will  result  from  frequent  renewing.  The 
more  vigorous  shoots  may  be  shortened-in,  to  prevent  the 
bush  from  becoming  straggling,  and  to  preserve  its  bal- 
ance. Since  the  greater  part  of  the  fruit  is  borne  near  the 
base  of  the  shoots,  shortening  these  may  tend  toward  a 
better  development  of  the  fruit  spurs,  especially  if  the 
shoots  are  nipped  back  in  summer,  when  they  have  reached 
sufficient  height.  In  common  practice,  cutting  away  part 
of  the  older  canes  at  the  ground  in  spring,  is  all  that  is 
needed.  If  too  many  young  stalks  have  been  produced, 
the  weaker  ones  should  also  be  removed. 

Experiments  in  thinning  the  fruit,  made  in  New  Jersey,1 
showed  that  when  the  outer  half  of  the  flower-cluster  was 
removed  with  a  pair  of  scissors  there  were  15  per  cent 
more  berries  to  the  cluster,  and  the  berries  were  7  per  cent 
heavier.  The  quality  also  seemed  to  be  better. 

Various  fancy  methods  of  training  are  resorted  to  by 

those  with  a  taste  for  oddities.     Sometimes  they  are 

trained  in  "pillar"  form,  one  upright  shoot  being  tied  to  a 

stake  and  the  side  branches  kept  very  short.    They  may 

1  Garden  and  Forest,  3  : 19. 


Gathering  and  Marketing  275 

also  be  readily  trained  against  a  wall.  It  is  said  that 
especially  fine  fruit  may  be  obtained  on  a  north  wall. 
They  have  even  been  grafted,  from  time  to  time,  in  order 
to  secure  standard  or  tree  forms.  Ribes  odoratum  is  the 
stock  most  commonly  used  for  this  purpose.  These 
methods  were  chiefly  in  vogue  early  in  the  horticultural 
development  of  our  own  country,  but  are  now  little  used. 
The  demand  for  the  currant  is  not  such  as  to  warrant 
fancy  methods  in  the  hope  of  a  fancy  product.  Good 
care,  liberal  feeding  and  frequent  renewal  of  the  bearing 
wood  are  all  that  conditions  warrant,  except  as  a  pastime. 

GATHERING  AND   MARKETING 

The  currant,  like  other  small  fruits,  should  be  picked 
only  when  dry.  Although  a  firm  fruit,  which  stands  ship- 
ment well  when  properly  treated,  it  will  quickly  spoil 
if  gathered  and  packed  when  wet.  Much  care  is  needed 
to  prevent  pickers  from  crushing  the  berries  or  tearing 
them  from  the  stems.  It  is  far  easier  to  grasp  a  cluster 
and  give  it  a  pull  than  it  is  carefully  to  sever  the  stem. 
Only  the  strictest  vigilance  will  insure  proper  care  in  the 
work.  This  is  written  with  a  distinct  remembrance  of  the 
work  of  some  Irish  girls,  who  thought  it  much  more  con- 
venient to  strip  the  berries  from  the  clusters  and  throw 
them  into  the  middle  of  the  baskets  loose,  than  to  pick 
the  stems  at  all.  All  such  berries  will  quickly  spoil;  the 
juice  which  exudes  from  them  will  soon  render  the  others 
wet  and  sticky  and  a  general  collapse  of  the  whole  package 
will  result.  Varieties  like  the  Fay,  which  have  more  clear 
space  of  stem  at  the  base  of  the  clusters,  have  a  distinct 


276  Bush-Fruits 

advantage  in  this  regard.  They  can  be  more  easily  picked 
without  crushing  any  of  the  fruits. 

For  shipping  purposes,  the  fruit  must  be  picked  while 
still  hard  and  firm,  in  order  to  carry  well.  For  home  use 
or  near  market  it  should  not  be  picked  too  soon,  especially 
for  dessert  use.  If  left  on  the  bushes  until  thoroughly 
ripe  and  soft,  they  make  an  admirable  dessert  fruit  when 
eaten  fresh.  For  this  purpose  the  White  Grape  is  one  of 
the  best,  being  less  acid  than  most  varieties.  The  fruit- 
ing season  may  be  prolonged  until  autumn,  if  the  fruit 
is  protected  by  covering  the  plants  with  light  cheese- 
cloth or  netting. 

The  fruit  is  commonly  marketed  in  quart  baskets, 
put  up  in  bushel  crates  like  other  berries.  Of  late  years 
the  grape  basket  has  been  gaining  in  favor  as  a  package, 
and  is  now  extensively  used.  The  nine-pound  basket 
is  the  size  preferred  by  most  markets.  This  is  a  conven- 
ient size  for  the  consumer,  especially  if  purchased  for 
jelly  or  preserving. 

USES 

The  paramount  use  of  the  currant  is  in  making  jelly, 
for  which  purpose  it  is  unsurpassed.  The  red  varieties 
are  preferred  owing  to  their  higher  color.  White  currants, 
if  scalded  before  pressing,  are  said  to  make  a  rich,  red 
jelly,  not  as  dark  as  that  from  red  varieties,  but  very 
handsome.  The  fruit,  either  green  or  ripe,  makes  excel- 
lent pies  or  sauce.  It  is  especially  satisfactory  when  used 
in  combination  with  fruits  which  lack  sprightliness  or 
acidity.  With  a  few  currants  added,  even  the  Russian 
mulberry  becomes  an  appetizing  fruit,  and  the  June- 


Duration  of  Currant  Plantations  277 

berry  is  all  that  one  could  wish.  The  currant  supplies 
the  requisite  acidity,  while  these  fruits  furnish  the  rich- 
ness of  flavor  which  the  currant  lacks.  In  canning  it 
preserves  its  qualities  intact,  so  that  it  is  nearly  as  avail- 
able in  winter  as  in  summer.  Currant  shrub  is  a  pleasant 
summer  drink,  made  from  the  ripe  fruit  crushed  and 
compounded  like  lemonade.  The  juice  is  said  to  be  very 
useful  in  soothing  fevers.  At  one  time  the  fruit  was  re- 
ported 1  as  having  a  steady  demand  in  St.  Louis  for  use 
as  a  flavoring  in  soda  water. 

As  a  dessert  fruit  the  currant  is  not  appreciated  as  it 
should  be.  Thoroughly  ripe  fruit,  crushed  and  mixed  with 
sugar  some  time  before  being  served  is  a  most  appetizing 
summer  fruit.  Nature  seems  to  have  just  adapted  it  to 
the  needs  of  the  hot  weather  season  during  which  it  ripens. 
The  ability  of  the  fruit  to  hang  on  the  bushes  so  long  after 
it  ripens  adds  greatly  to  its  value  for  use  in  this  way. 
Taken  all  in  all,  no  member  of  the  bush-fruit  family  better 
deserves  a  place  in  the  home-garden  than  does  the  currant. 
It  adapts  itself  so  well  to  the  varying  conditions  there 
found,  and  returns  so  much  for  the  care  demanded  that  it 
should  find  a  place  with  every  home  which  can  have  a 
garden. 

DURATION   OF   CURRANT  PLANTATIONS 

The  length  of  time  during  which  plantings  will  continue 
productive  will  depend  much  on  the  care  and  treatment 
which  they  receive.  Downing  advised  2  renewing  them 
every  six  or  eight  years,  as  finer  fruit,  with  less  trouble, 

1  Illinois  Hort.  Soc.  1890  :  157. 

2  Fruits  and  Fruit  Trees  of  America,  488. 


278  Bush-Fruits 

can  be  had  from  young  bushes.  He  was  then  recommend- 
ing the  tree  form  of  culture,  however,  and  these  fail  sooner 
than  when  a  number  of  stalks  are  grown  and  renewed  as 
fast  as  they  become  weak.  To  the  ordinary  farmer  it 
seldom  occurs  that  they  need  to  be  renewed  at  all.  A 
currant  bush,  once  planted,  should  care  for  itself  and 
last  indefinitely  or  at  least  as  long  as  an  apple-tree.  That 
is  just  what  the  plant  ordinarily  does  under  the  conditions 
to  which  the  farmer  too  often  subjects  it.  It  looks  out  for 
itself,  devoting  little  energy  to  the  production  of  a  high 
grade  of  fruit. 

So,  also,  with  good  care,  liberal  fertilizing  and  frequent 
renewing,  bushes  may  be  kept  in  a  profitable  condition 
for  many  years.  Practical  growers,  however,  seem  to 
find  it  advisable  to  replant  after  eight  or  ten  years  of 
service.  The  cost  of  replanting  is  light,  and  the  advantage 
of  young  and  vigorous  plants  will  more  than  repay  it. 
If  one  desires  to  rejuvenate  old  bushes  in  the  home-garden, 
cutting  them  off  close  to  the  ground  and  working  manure 
into  the  soil  will  infuse  new  life  into  them. 


HARDINESS 

Ability  to  endure  cold  hardly  enters  into  consideration 
with  the  currant.  It  endures  the  most  severe  winters, 
in  the  extreme  northern  limits  of  the  United  States  at 
least,  and  comes  out  in  spring  with  every  bud  unharmed. 
The  question  of  hardiness  here  centers  not  on  resistance 
to  cold,  but  on  ability  to  endure  heat.  In  this  it  fails, 
as  already  shown  by  its  distribution  and  its  more  or  less 
complete  failure  in  warm  climates. 


Yield  279 


YIELD 

Perhaps  no  fruit  grown  varies  more  in  yield  than  does 
the  currant.  This  is  largely  owing  to  the  fact  that  it 
will  grow  and  produce  something  under  almost  any  kind 
of  treatment.  The  average  yield  for  the  United  States 
in  1909,  according  to  census  figures  was  only  a  little  more 
than  forty  bushels  to  the  acre.  Yet  there  are  growers  who 
report  as  high  as  250  bushels.  With  good  care  they  ought 
to  yield  from  100  to  150  bushels  an  acre.  It  should  be 
remembered  that  there  are  many  drawbacks  to  the  pro- 
duction of  all  kinds  of  fruit.  While  such  yields  may  seem 
easy  to  obtain,  when  compared  with  the  exceptional 
ones  occasionally  reported,  it  will  be  found  that  only  by 
high  culture  and  careful  attention  to  details  will  even 
these  yields  be  reached.  In  garden  culture,  from  two  to 
four  pounds  per  bush  may  be  expected.  As  instances  of 
exceptional  yields,  five  and  one-half  tons  from  one  and  one- 
fourth  acres,  or  220  bushels  to  the  acre,  have  been  re- 
ported from  the  Hudson  River  valley,  six  quarts  to  a 
bush,  or  320  bushels  to  the  acre  from  Ohio,  and  sixteen 
tons  from  three  acres  from  Wisconsin.  Let  no  one  mis- 
take these  for  probable  yields,  in  forming  estimates  of 
the  results  likely  to  follow  prospective  planting.  Such 
yields  tend  to  awaken  enthusiasm  on  the  part  of  the 
novice,  but  while  the  currant  is  one  of  the  most  produc- 
tive of  the  small  fruits,  such  returns  are  seldom  secured 
on  a  commercial  scale. 


280  Bush-Fruits 

PROFITS 

Profits  vary  greatly,  not  only  with  methods  of  culture, 
but  also  with  conditions  of  the  market.  At  times  they 
have  proved  unprofitable;  and  again  they  have  yielded 
large  returns,  but  this  fluctuation  is  no  greater  than  with 
other  fruit.  Indeed  there  is  reason  to  think  that  produc- 
tion varies  less  than  with  many  other  fruits.  Under  some 
conditions  they  have  proved  more  profitable  than  straw- 
berries or  raspberries.  To  the  skillful  grower  who  is 
near  a  market  or  has  good  facilities  for  shipping,  the 
currant  will  prove  profitable.  To  the  ordinary  farmer, 
unaccustomed  to  their  care,  and  remote  from  market, 
they  will  prove  unprofitable.  At  six  cents  a  pound  or 
eight  cents  a  quart,  they  should  prove  a  satisfactory  crop. 
Canning  factories  use  them  in  large  quantities  at  about 
four  cents  a  pound.  They  weigh  about  forty  pounds  to 
a  bushel,  making  this  equivalent  to  $1.60  a  bushel.  This, 
with  a  convenient  location  and  good  culture,  to  insure  a 
yield  of  not  less  than  one  hundred  bushels  an  acre,  will 
yield  a  fair  return,  if  pickers  can  be  had  in  sufficient  num- 
bers, so  that  enough  can  be  grown  to  make  it  an  object. 

BLACK   CURRANTS 

The  treatment  of  the  black  currant  does  not  differ  ma- 
terially from  that  of  the  red.  The  bushes  grow  a  little 
taller,  and  may  require  a  little  more  room.  This  can  be 
easily  given,  for  in  most  localities  one  bush  will  supply 
the  demand  of  the  entire  community.  A  convenient 
method  of  pruning  the  black  currant  is  quoted  from  the 
Garden  by  the  Canadian  Horticulturist,  1896,  page  198. 


Black  Currants  .  281 

It  consists  in  cutting  out  the  bearing  branches  when  the 
fruit  is  ripe,  carrying  them  to  a  shady  place  and  there 
picking  the  fruit  at  ease.  The  annual  renewing  thus  given 
is  said  to  produce  well-ripened  wood  and  fine  fruit,  since 
fruit  borne  on  old  wood  is  much  inferior. 

Notwithstanding  the  lack  of  popularity  of  the  black 
currant  in  America,  we  might  do  well  to  cultivate  it  more 
than  we  do.  It  undoubtedly  possesses  more  value  than 
we  accord  to  it.  It  is  said  that  if  the  fruit  is  scalded 
for  a  few  minutes  in  boiling  water,  then  put  into  fresh 
water  for  cooking,  the  peculiar  flavor  of  the  skin  will  be 
wholly  removed,  and  that  when  canned  it  is  much  like 
cranberry  sauce  in  flavor  and  color.  The  fruit  is  credited 
with  some  medicinal  qualities,  especially  in  alleviating 
inflammation  or  soreness  of  the  throat.  Jelly  from  the 
fruit,  mingled  with  water,  or  the  parts  of  the  plant  steeped, 
are  said  to  be  useful  in  bowel  and  summer  complaints. 
Persons  accustomed  to  its  use  certainly  relish  it,  especially 
for  jam  and  jelly. 

Fuller  states  that  the  people  of  Siberia  use  the  leaves 
for  making  a  drink  the  same  as  we  use  tea.  Loudon  says 
that  the  dried  leaves  so  much  resemble  green  tea  in  flavor 
that  a  very  small  portion  of  them  added  to  black  tea  will 
communicate  that  flavor  so  effectually  as  to  completely 
deceive  the  taste.  From  Loudon's  statements  it  appears 
that  the  fruit,  either  dried  or  in  the  form  of  jam  or  jelly, 
is  very  widely  used  throughout  Europe  against  affections 
of  the  throat. 


CHAPTER  XII 
GOOSEBERRIES 

THE  gooseberry  is  one  of  the  lesser  of  the  small-fruits  of 
the  United  States.  It  is  apparently  prized  and  appreciated 
less  than  almost  any  other  fruit.  It  is  extremely  sour, 
and  the  custom  of  using  it  only  in  the  green  state  prevents 
some  of  its  qualities  from  becoming  known.  Many  persons 
do  not  care  for  it,  and  the  demand  is  much  less  than  for 
the  berry  fruits,  while  the  supply  is  often  more  than  cor- 
respondingly less.  In  spite  of  this  apparent  indifference, 
it  has  many  good  qualities  to  commend  it.  In  the  green 
state,  as  generally  sold,  it  bears  shipment  exceedingly 
well,  reaching  the  consumer,  when  properly  handled,  with 
no  waste,  and  in  as  good  condition  as  when  it  left  the 
plants. 

The  total  area  devoted  to  gooseberry  culture  in  the 
United  States  in  1909,  according  to  the  census  report,  was 
4,765  acres.  This  was  nearly  2,000  acres  less  than  ten 
years  before,  when  the  amount  reported  was  6,752  acres. 
New  England,  and  the  Mountain  divisions  show  an  in- 
crease, all  others  a  decrease,  though  in  the  Middle  Atlantic 
section  it  is  so  slight  as  to  be  negligible.  The  East  North 
Central  division  leads,  with  1,482  acres  in  1909.  This  is 
closely  followed  by  the  West  North  Central  division,  with 
1,232  acres.  It  outranks  the  currant  in  the  South  At- 
lantic and  East  South  Central  divisions,  but  falls  behind 

282 


Soil  and  Location  283 

it  in  the  West  South  Central  section.  The  total  produc- 
tion is  placed  at  5,282,483  quarts,  valued  at  $417,034, 
an  average  price  of  nearly  eight  cents  a  quart. 

Like  the  currant,  the  gooseberry  is  a  northern  plant, 
and  refuses  to  be  content  in  a  hot  climate.  It  fails  in  the 
southern  states  and  almost  completely  along  the  Gulf 
coast.  In  Nebraska  it  seems  to  thrive  better  than  the 
currant.  Its  leaves  fall  early,  and  the  fruit  is  decidedly 
smaller  than  in  the  eastern  states,  but  the  plants  make  a 
good  growth,  appear  healthy,  except  in  the  early  loss  of 
leaves,  and  are  fairly  productive.  The  English  varieties 
produce  an  occasional  fruit,  but  so  far  as  tested  may  be 
termed  an  utter  failure.  It  should  be  remembered  that 
the  summers  on  the  plains  are  hot  and  dry,  consequently 
unfavorable  to  these  fruits.  Frequently,  however,  the 
early  part  of  the  season  is  favorable,  so  that  the  fruit 
has  an  opportunity  to  mature  before  severe  heat  and 
drought  affect  it.  The  chief  injury  in  that  case  is  un- 
doubtedly due  to  the  early  loss  of  leaves  and  consequent 
enfeebled  condition  of  the  bush  the  succeeding  year. 

SOIL  AND   LOCATION 

The  gooseberry  is  much  like  the  currant  in  its  soil  de- 
mands. A  cool,  moist,  strong  and  rich  soil,  deeply  worked, 
is  the  requisition  which  it  makes.  The  more  unfavorable 
the  location  in  the  way  of  climate,  the  more  closely  will 
this  demand  in  the  way  of  soil  need  to  be  met.  Well  to 
the  north,  in  high  altitudes,  or  cool  northern  exposures, 
it  will  succeed  well  on  sandy  or  even  gravelly  loam,  though 
the  rule  is  that  the  lighter  the  soil  the  less  satisfactory 


284  Bush-Fruits 

the  crop.  However,  the  opposite  extreme  is  not  advisable. 
A  muck  soil  will  produce  a  strong  growth  but  diminished 
productiveness,  while  a  heavy,  cold  clay  is  hard  to  work, 
and  may  cause  the  bushes  to  heave.  A  strong  clay  loam, 
not  liable  to  injury  from  drought,  but  well  drained,  well 
enriched,  deeply  worked  and  subsoiled,  is  the  ideal.  A 
cool  northern  exposure  is  desirable,  if  it  can  be  had.  Par- 
tial shade  may  be  an  advantage,  but  the  plant  does  not 
appear  to  thrive  under  the  shade  of  trees  as  well  as  the 
currant.  For  home  use,  the  north  side  of  a  fence  or  of 
buildings  is  a  good  location.  Proper  selections  of  soil 
and  location  will  do  much  to  preserve  a  healthy  condition 
of  the  bush,  retain  the  foliage  and  prevent  mildew. 

/ 

FERTILIZERS 

Growers  of  long  experience  agree  that  no  fertilizer  is 
better  for  gooseberries  than  good  cow  manure,  liberally 
applied.  The  plants  are  gross  feeders,  and  a  heavy  top- 
dressing  every  autumn  will  be  profitably  utilized.  This 
may  be  supplemented  with  a  dressing  of  wood-ashes,  or 
other  chemicals,  early  in  spring,  if  the  supply  of  stable- 
manure  has  been  limited.  The  soil  must  be  rich,  to  insure 
good  results. 

PROPAGATION 

The  propagation  of  the  gooseberry  is  similar  to  that  of 
the  currant,  though  it  does  not  root  so  readily  from  cut- 
tings. The  wood  does  not  mature  as  early  in  the  fall  as 
that  of  the  currant,  so  that  planting  is  oftener  delayed 
until  spring,  though  the  cuttings  may  well  be  taken  in  fall, 


Propagation  285 

and  be  buried  outside  or  placed  in  a  cellar  for  winter,  as 
directed  for  currants.  If  left  until  spring,  they  must  be 
taken  very  early,  as  they  push  into  growth  at  the  first 
touch  of  warm  weather.  Cuttings  are  made  from  six  to 
ten  inches  long,  using  only  well-ripened  wood  of  the  cur- 
rent season's  growth.  Formerly  the  lower  buds  were 
cut  out  before  planting,  in  order  to  prevent  suckers  from 
springing  up,  thus  securing  a  tree  form  of  growth.  This 
is  no  longer  followed  in  commercial  growing,  though  it 
may  be  desirable  where  attractive  bushes  are  wanted  for 
the  garden.  The  soil  should  be  pressed  firmly  about  the 
base  in  planting,  and  only  one  or  two  buds  be  left  above 
the  surface  of  the  ground.  Thorough  mulching  is  impera- 
tive, if  the  cuttings  are  planted  in  the  fall. 

Some  varieties,  like  Houghton,  root  readily  from  cut- 
tings, but  Downing  and  other  strong,  vigorous  growers 
do  not,  consequently  layering  is  oftener  used.  It  is  gener- 
ally believed  that  stockier  and  better  plants  are  obtained 
from  cuttings.  Bent  layers  root  readily,  but  this  is  too 
slow,  and  the  number  of  plants  produced  is  too  small  for 
commercial  work.  Mound-layering  is  the  method  gener- 
ally followed.  For  this  purpose  the  plants  are  cut  back 
severely  in  autumn,  to  induce  many  shoots  to  grow  the 
succeeding  spring.  About  July  1,  when  these  have  made 
their  principal  growth,  earth  is  mounded  up  about  and 
among  them,  leaving  only  their  tips  exposed.  American 
varieties  will  root  readily,  and  may  be  removed  the  same 
autumn,  but  English  varieties  are  left  in  this  position  for 
two  seasons.  The  last  of  October,  or  before  the  ground 
freezes,  the  soil  is  thrown  back,  and  the  shoots  are  cut 
away  and  trenched  or  buried  in  the  cellar  for  spring 


286  Bush-Fruits 

planting.  In  commercial  work  two  grades  are  commonly 
made.  In  spring  they  are  planted  in  nursery  rows  and 
cultivated  for  one  year,  when  they  are  ready  to  go  on  the 
market.  Some  roots  will  have  formed  during  the  process 
of  layering,  and  the  plants  will  be  in  condition  to  make 
a  much  better  growth  when  planted  out  than  cuttings 
taken  without  previous  layering. 

Spring  is  a  busy  season  with  the  nurseryman  and 
fruit-grower,  and  the  gooseberry  is  very  impatient  at  the 
approach  of  warm  weather.  For  this  reason  the  layers 
are  often  planted  in  nursery  rows  when  removed  from 
the  parent  plants  in  fall,  and  mulched  during  winter. 
In  favorable  climates  this  will  prove  satisfactory,  but 
where  the  winters  are  dry  and  open,  as  on  the  plains, 
the  loss  of  plants  is  likely  to  be  large,  unless  they  are  wholly 
covered  with  earth.  If  bushes  are  to  be  managed  princi- 
pally or  exclusively  for  the  production  of  plants,  they 
should  be  set  in  rows  eight  feet  apart  and  close  together 
in  the  row.  This  will  facilitate  the  work  of  mounding 
and  removing  the  soil  in  layering,  as  much  of  it  can  be 
done  with  a  plow. 

For  home  use,  the  suckers  which  spring  up  about  the 
base  of  the  old  plants  may  be  removed  and  planted.  They 
commonly  have  some  roots  attached,  and  grow  readily. 
The  older  writers  warn  us  against  their  use,  but  apparently 
for  the  reason  that  they,  too,  are  likely  to  throw  up  suckers 
from  the  roots.  When  the  fashion  was  to  grow  the  plants 
only  in  tree  form  this  was  considered  a  serious  fault.  Bent 
layers  may  be  employed  in  a  small  way.  By  this  method, 
the  branches  are  held  beneath  the  soil  by  a  forked  peg 
and  the  tip  allowed  to  grow  upward.  A  slit  is  made  on 


Propagation  287 

the  under  side  of  the  arched  portion  which  is  buried  in  the 
ground,  to  induce  more  rapid  rooting,  by  checking  in 
some  degree  the  flow  of  sap  from  the  parent  plant.  Layer- 
ing the  tips,  like  black  raspberries,  is  also  said  to  succeed, 
though  not  a  common  method. 

A  writer  in  the  "Gardener's  Monthly"  for  1885,  p.  49, 
says  that  the  readiest  and  quickest  way  to  propagate 
the  English  gooseberry  is  by  pieces  of  its  own  roots.  Old 
bushes  are  dug  up  in  spring,  the  roots  chopped  in  pieces 
three  to  four  inches  long,  and  planted  in  nursery  rows 
three  or  four  inches  deep.  He  says  that  they  will  grow 
more  in  one  year  than  a  cutting  will  in  two  or  three.  This 
method  is  certainly  not  in  common  use.  Two  trials  in  the 
greenhouse  early  in  spring,  embracing  both  English  and 
American  varieties,  resulted  in  complete  failure. 

New  varieties  must  come  from  seeds,  which  should  be 
treated  as  directed  for  currants.  It  is  not  difficult  to  grow 
plants  by  this  method.  There  is  likely  to  be  little  retro- 
gression, and  in  rare  cases  there  may  be  an  advance  in 
valuable  qualities.  A  French  article  which  appeared  in 
the  Horticulturist  in  1849,  translated  from  the  Revue 
Horticole,  states  that  seedlings  withstand  the  heat  of 
French  summers  much  better  than  cuttings,  and  recom- 
mends propagation  by  seeds  rather  than  by  other  methods 
for  that  climate. 

Grafting  is  easily  performed,  the  Missouri  currant  being 
the  stock  oftenest  used.  According  to  Robert  Man- 
ning,1 the  best  results  are  obtained  by  side-grafting  under 
the  bark  in  August,  the  top  being  cut  down  in  spring  and 
the  snag  removed  afterward,  as  with  budded  trees.  Al- 
1  Trans.  Mass.  Hort.  Soc.  1879: 37. 


288  Bush-Fruits 

though  quite  extensively  practiced  at  one  time  in  the  pro- 
duction of  standard  bushes,  and  as  a  supposed  remedy 
for  the  mildew,  the  fad  soon  died  out. 


PLANTING 

The  methods  of  planting  recommended  for  the  currant 
are  equally  applicable  to  the  gooseberry.  If  rows  are 
placed  six  feet  apart  in  the  direction  most  convenient  for 
cultivating,  and  the  plants  four  feet  apart  in  the  opposite 
direction,  in  order  to  afford  opportunity  for  cross  cultiva- 
tion when  the  plants  are  young,  and  at  intervals  thereafter, 
they  will  have  room  enough  for  proper  development, 
with  convenient  space  for  their  care  and  for  gathering  the 
fruit. 

The  same  arguments  as  with  the  currant  will  apply 
to  the  choice  of  season  for  planting.  These  fruits  drop 
their  leaves  so  early  that  fall  planting  may  be  done  much 
earlier  than  with  most  other  fruits,  even  in  September, 
allowing  the  plants  to  become  well  established  before  the 
advent  of  cold  weather.  This  is  one  of  the  hardiest  fruits, 
but  the  grower  who  withholds  the  proper  care  in  planting 
will  inevitably  reap  the  recompense  for  his  neglect. 

AFTER   TREATMENT 

Since  the  gooseberry  is  subject  to  greater  injury  from 
drought  than  the  currant,  there  is  the  more  urgent  need 
of  complete  and  thorough  cultivation.  As  with  the  cur- 
rant, it  should  be  shallow  but  frequent.  Hardness  and 
dryness  of  the  soil  are  especially  injurious.  The  better 


Pruning  289 

the  cultivation,  the  cooler  and  moister  can  the  soil  be 
kept,  and  hence  the  nearer  will  be  the  approach  to  the 
normal  conditions  under  which  the  plant  thrives.  Like 
the  proper  selection  of  soil  and  location,  suitable  cultiva- 
tion will  materially  aid  in  preserving  the  health  of  the 
plants  and  preventing  mildew,  though  by  no  means  a 
remedy  for  that  disease.  Mulching  also  succeeds  well, 
preserving  the  soil  in  a  cool  and  moist  condition  even 
better  than  cultivation.  Deep  tillage  must  be  carefully 
avoided.  Disturbing  the  roots  is  likely  to  cause  imper- 
fect setting  or  subsequent  dropping  of  the  fruit.  Both  the 
groselles  and  especially  the  gooseberry,  are  very  sensitive 
to  root  conditions.  An  untimely  and  improper  cultiva- 
tion may  practically  destroy  the  crop.  Allowing  the  soil 
to  go  without  mulching  or  tillage  is  also  injurious  if  the 
surface  becomes  dry  and  hard. 


PKUNING 

Left  to  itself,  the  gooseberry  soon  becomes  a  tangled 
thicket,  the  fruit  in  consequence  being  small  and  difficult 
to  pick.  It  produces  much  more  wood  than  ought  to  re- 
main for  each  year's  fruiting.  This  must  be  reduced,  if 
the  best  results  are  to  be  secured.  The  particular  manner 
in  which  it  is  performed  is  of  far  less  importance.  Berries 
are  produced  from  all  parts  of  the  bush  except  the  present 
year  shoots  and  the  very  old  wood,  but  the  finest  fruits 
are  borne  on  one-year-old  branches.  After  two  or  three 
years  in  bearing  the  wood  begins  to  fail,  and  the  fruit 
borne  from  it  likewise  declines.  The  principle,  therefore, 
should  be  to  carefully  guard  the  vigorous  young  wood, 


290  Bush-Fruits 

allowing  it  to  replace  that  which  is  older  before  the  latter 
has  a  chance  to  fail.  The  weak  young  shoots  should  be  cut 
away,  or  perhaps  be  cut  back  to  two  or  three  buds,  if  the 
bush  is  still  thin.  The  vigorous  ones  may  be  moderately 
cut  back,  and  as  much  old  wood  cut  away  as  can  be  spared 
without  interfering  with  the  productiveness  of  the  bush. 

Benj.  G.  Smith  states  1  that  he  prunes  as  carefully  as  he 
does  grape  vines,  some  on  the  spur  system  and  some  with 
long  shoots,  with  equal  success.  This  is  significant,  in 
showing  that  the  method  is  of  minor  importance.  The  es- 
sential thing  is  to  so  renew  that  the  bearing  wood  shall  al- 
ways be  strong  and  vigorous,  and  the  amount  of  such  wood 
not  greater  than  the  bush  is  able  to  support  and  fill 
with  well-developed  fruit.  In  northern  localities  an  open 
top  is  desirable,  but  where  the  summers  are  hot  a  thicker 
growth,  with  more  shade,  may  be  better.  Shortening- 
back  the  lower  branches  severely  will  aid  in  keeping  the 
fruit  up  from  the  ground. 

In  the  tree  form  of  pruning,  from  six  to  ten  main 
branches  are  allowed  to  grow,  and  all  suckers  are  cut  away. 
These  main  branches  may  be  allowed  to  divide  as  the  bush 
gets  older.  They  are  annually  shortened  to  a  few  inches  of 
new  growth  and  the  side  shoots  cut  back  to  from  one  to 
four  buds. 

In  practical  culture,  thinning  is  all  done  by  the  amount 
of  wood  removed.  In  the  production  of  prize  berries,  as 
practiced  by  English  growers,  thinning  is  an  absolute 
necessity.  The  largest  fruit  can  only  be  produced  by 
closely  limiting  the  number  which  the  plant  is  allowed  to 
carry.  Thinning  is  no  less  important  in  commercial  work, 
1  Trans.  Mass.  Hort.  Soc.  1883: 123. 


Gathering  and  Marketing  291 

because  done  by  removing  wood,  instead  of  individual 
fruits.  It  is  well  to  keep  this  fact  in  mind  in  all  prun- 
ing operations. 

Various  methods  of  training  have  been  reported.  In 
some  cases  they  have  been  trained  as  single  stems  and  tied 
to  stakes;  in  others  they  have  been  made  to  cover  arbors 
by  carefully  training  up  shoots  at  given  distances  apart. 
Some  very  remarkable  bushes  have  been  reported.  In 
the  tree  form  they  have  been  said  to  reach  a  height  of 
sixteen  feet,  and  others  have  been  trained  as  standards 
with  clear  stems  five  feet  high.  In  the  "  Transactions  of 
the  London  Horticultural  Society,"  Vol.  V,  p.  490,  a  plant 
is  reported  which  was  forty-six  years  old,  measuring 
twelve  yards  in  circumference  and  which  had  produced 
several  pecks  of  fruit  annually  for  thirty  years.  Another, 
thirty  years  old,  was  trained  to  a  building,  and  measured 
53  feet  4  inches  from  one  extremity  to  the  other.  This 
bore  four  or  five  pecks  of  fruit  annually. 

GATHERING  AND   MARKETING 

Picking  gooseberries  is  difficult  on  account  of  the  thorns. 
The  Downing,  our  best  well-tested  variety,  is  one  of  the 
worst  in  this  respect.  This  feature  does  much  to  check 
increased  cultivation  of  the  gooseberry.  Vigorous  pruning, 
to  keep  the  bushes  thin  and  open,  will  materially  aid  in 
the  matter,  and  the  picker  soon  learns  to  avoid  too  careless 
contact.  Another  method  of  circumventing  the  difficulty 
is  possible,  from  the  fact  that  the  berries  are  marketed  when 
green  and  hard.  This  consists  in  wearing  thick  leather 
gloves  and  in  stripping  the  berries  from  the  branches. 


292  Bush-Fruits 

They  are  then  run  through  a  fanning  mill  to  drive 
out  the  leaves.  This  method  is  most  satisfactory  in  com- 
mercial work.  It  will  not  answer  for  ripe  fruit,  which  is  too 
easily  crushed.  Pickers  are  paid  about  1J/2  cents  a  quart, 
and  will  average  from  sixty  to  one  hundred  quarts  a  day. 

Some  growers  cut  away  the  older  stalks,  which  should 
come  out  the  following  spring,  picking  the  fruit  after  re- 
moving them  from  the  plant.  Some  fruit  is  usually  pulled 
off  in  doing  this  and  not  much  is  gained  by  it  except 
that  the  work  may  be  conducted  in  a  more  comfortable 
place.  It  may  help  the  busy  housewife  who  has  fruit  to 
pick  from  her  own  garden,  on  a  hot  day,  or  suggest  a 
way  whereby  the  gardener  himself  may  help. 

At  the  present  time  the  market  calls  for  green  goose- 
berries only.  In  this  stage  the  fruit  will  carry  almost 
any  distance  in  first-class  condition.  Ten-pound  grape 
baskets  are  excellent  for  shipping  and  general  market 
purposes,  though  the  quart  berry  baskets  are  still  much 
used.  It  is  a  pleasure  to  pack  this  fruit  for  shipment. 
It  is  so  clean  and  solid,  and  there  is  a  feeling  of  security 
that  it  will  remain  so  until  it  reaches  the  consumer. 

The  gooseberry,  even  more  than  the  currant,  seems  to 
have  fallen  into  general  disrepute.  This  may  be  partly 
due  to  the  fact  that  the  housewife  often  thinks  that  she 
must  snip  off  the  stem  and  dried  blossom  of  every  fruit 
before  it  goes  into  the  cooking  dish.  This  is  a  tiresome  task, 
and  she  may  well  be  pardoned  for  not  wanting  to  care 
for  many  of  them.  To  try  to  convince  her  that  this  opera- 
tion might  be  omitted  is  probably  useless. 

A  few  quarts  may  be  sold  to  a  family  here  and  there, 
but  even  the  larger  towns  and  cities  seem  to  demand  but 


Uses  293 

few.  If  varieties  with  larger  fruit,  such  as  is  commonly 
grown  in  England,  could  be  successfully  grown  in  our 
climate,  the  outlet  would  doubtless  be  better. 


USES 

The  fruit  is  commonly  used  in  pies,  stewed,  canned, 
or  for  jelly.  That  it  makes  a  good  jelly  is  evidenced  by 
an  ingenious  process  of  imitating  it  reported  by  the  "Gar- 
dener's Monthly"  for  1884,  page  204.  This  states  that 
gooseberry  jelly  is  made  from  seaweed,  the  color  being 
given  by  fuchsine  or  similar  material,  and  the  flavor 
by  a  mixture  of  acetic  ether,  tartaric  acid  and  other 
substances. 

The  good  qualities  of  the  gooseberry  are  not  confined 
to  the  green  state.  The  flavor  of  a  well-ripened  goose- 
berry is  scarcely  to  be  surpassed  among  fruits.  Its  value 
should  be  better  appreciated.  It  is  especially  good  to  be 
eaten  out  of  hand,  as  it  comes  from  the  bush.  It  also  makes 
a  fine  table  fruit  when  fully  ripe,  if  crushed  or  cut  and 
eaten  with  sugar,  or  sugar  and  cream.  Unfortunately 
the  acidity  of  the  skin  does  not  disappear  with  ripening. 
Indeed,  when  cooked,  the  ripe  fruit  is  even  more  sour  than 
the  unripe.  This  makes  it  undesirable  for  most  cooking 
purposes  except  in  the  green  state. 

T.  H.  Hoskins  is  authority  for  the  statement 1  that  ripe 
Houghtons  are  an  excellent  substitute  for  cranberries, 
as  a  sauce  for  meat.  They  are  cooked  enough  to  burst 
the  skins,  then  put  up  in  fruit  cans,  but  not  sweetened 
till  wanted  for  use.  Since  they  are  much  cheaper  than 
1  Kept.  Michigan  Hort.  Soc.  1884:  262. 


294  Bush-Fruits 

cranberries,  and  can  be  grown  anywhere,  this  method  of 
using  them  is  worth  remembering.  We  too  often  look 
to  the  market  for  the  products  of  distant  points  and  fail 
to  fully  utilize  those  from  our  own  gardens. 

A  method  of  keeping  green  gooseberries  which  seems 
to  have  been  in  vogue  before  the  process  of  canning  was 
known,  consists  in  filling  a  jug  or  bottle  with  sound  fruit, 
taking  care  that  no  bruised  or  crushed  ones  go  in,  then 
filling  with  cold  spring  or  well  water,  corking  tightly  and 
putting  away  in  a  cool  cellar.  Hoskins  states  that  they 
can  be  so  preserved  perfectly  the  year  round,  without 
sealing,  though  it  is  generally  recommended  to  seal  them. 
This  method  is  certainly  simple  and,  if  as  satisfactory  as  it 
is  said  to  be,  makes  fresh  gooseberry  pie  available  at  all 
seasons  of  the  year.  Another  method  of  keeping,  recom- 
mended by  the  "Prairie  Farmer/'  is  to  put  them  into 
bottles  when  perfectly  dry,  then  cork  the  bottles  tight, 
cover  the  corks  with  sealing  wax,  and  partially  cover  the 
bottles  with  sand  or  earth  in  the  cellar. 


DURATION   OF   PLANTATIONS 

In  the  older  method  of  pruning  to  tree  form,  the  plants 
began  to  fail  after  six  or  eight  years,  and  soon  became  un- 
profitable, generally  bearing  their  best  fruit  about  the 
fourth  or  fifth  year  from  planting.  In  bush  training,  they 
remain  in  vigorous  condition  much  longer.-  Plantations 
twenty  or  twenty-five  years  old,  and  still  profitable,  are 
not  uncommon.  Much  depends  on  the  thoroughness 
with  which  the  renewing  process  is  carried  on.  Liberal 
fertilizing  and  good  culture  will  also  aid  greatly.  Gener- 


Yield  295 

ally  it  will  be  found  more  profitable  to  discard  them  after 
ten  or  twelve  years.  Replanting  is  not  expensive,  and  the 
younger  plants  will  be  more  vigorous  and  bear  finer  fruit. 
A  slight  difference  in  the  quantity  and  quality  of  crops 
will  soon  offset  the  cost  of  replanting.  No  rule  as  to 
number  of  years  can  be  valid,  for  of  two  plantations  of 
the  same  age,  one  may  still  be  perfectly  satisfactory  and 
the  other  wholly  unprofitable,  owing  to  differences  in 
treatment  and  conditions.  In  commercial  work,  a  safe 
rule  will  be  to  replant  as  soon  as  the  first  trace  of  waning 
vigor  can  be  detected.  It  is  not  a  question  of  how  long 
they  will  continue  to  bear  well,  but  of  which  will  prove 
the  more  profitable,  the  old  planting,  with  its  regular  care, 
or  a  new  one,  with  the  added  expense  of  another  planting. 
If  these  points  were  carefully  weighed,  replanting  would 
doubtless  be  much  more  frequent  than  it  now  is. 

HARDINESS 

Cold  has  apparently  no  effect  on  the  gooseberry,  at 
least  such  temperatures  as  are  likely  to  be  reached  any- 
where in  the  United  States,  and  even  far  to  the  north. 
It  stands  unprotected  through  our  severest  winters  with- 
out the  loss  of  a  bud,  but  if  moved  southward  it  soon  be- 
comes uncomfortable.  It  cannot  endure  scorching  sum- 
mer suns. 

YIELD 

Full  grown  plants,  vigorous  and  well  cared  for,  ought 
to  yield  from  five  to  eight  quarts  to  the  plant,  or,  roughly 
speaking,  from  300  to  500  bushels  to  the  acre,  with  plants 


296  Bush-Fruits 

four  by  six  feet  apart.  One-half  bushel  to  a  plant,  set  at 
this  distance,  has  been  reported  from  Canada.  This  is 
exceptional,  and  should  not  be  considered  as  a  basis  for 
estimates.  At  the  Geneva,  New  York,  Experiment  Sta- 
tion, in  1891, 1  plants  gave  an  average  of  over  ten  pounds 
of  fruit  each,  or  about  eight  quarts.  This  would  make 
about  450  bushels  to  the  acre  with  plants  set  four  by  six 
feet  apart.  Fuller2  says  that  from  200  to  400  bushels 
to  the  acre  of  native  sorts  can  be  grown.  The  average 
yield  for  the  United  States  as  a  whole,  as  deduced  from  the 
figures  for  acreage  and  total  production  given  in  the  1910 
census,  is  only  35  bushels  to  the  acre.  The  reader  may 
make  his  own  contrasts  and  draw  his  own  conclusions. 

PROFITS 

When  the  market  is  at  hand  the  gooseberry  is  one  of 
the  most  reliable  and  generally  one  of  the  most  profitable 
small-fruits  grown.  The  price  a  quart  is  not  high,  but  the 
yield  is  large  and  the  loss  little.  The  average  price  in  the 
New  York  market  seems  to  be  about  $2  a  bushel,  though 
fine  fruit  sometimes  reaches  double  that  price. 

Of  all  small-fruits  the  gooseberry  is  the  one  best  adapted 
to  long-distance  shipments.  If  a  large  city  market  can 
be  reached  without  too  great  cost  it  may  pay  well  to  do  it. 
In  some  localities  the  home  market  is  doubtless  worth 
cultivating.  Attempting  to  educate  the  public  is  gener- 
ally a  thankless  task,  but  if  persons  could  be  taught  to 
use  the  ripe  fruit  as  well  as  the  green,  the  consumption 
of  the  gooseberry  would  be  greatly  increased. 

1  Annual  Kept.  1891:  474. 

2  Small  Fruit  Culturist,  p.  222. 


English  Gooseberries  297 


ENGLISH   GOOSEBERRIES 

Although  frequent  mention  has  been  made  of  the  English 
varieties,  it  may  be  well  to  say  a  word  further  regarding 
their  culture  in  the  United  States.  Like  all  European 
fruits,  they  have  been  tried  again  and  again,  yet  they 
have  only  succeeded  here  and  there,  when  meeting  pe- 
culiarly favorable  conditions.  Benj.  G.  Smith,  of  Cam- 
bridge, successfully  cultivated  them  for  years,  and  oc- 
casionally other  growers  have  succeeded,  but  the  general 
fact  remains  that  the  English  gooseberry  is  not  a  success 
in  America.  It  may  produce  a  few  good  berries  when 
young,  but  is  almost  sure  to  fail  later.  It  is  said  to  thrive 
well  on  the  northwest  coast  where  the  climate  is  more 
like  that  of  England.  In  1884,  a  motion  was  made  at  the 
meeting  of  the  American  Pomological  Society  to  strike 
all  English  varieties  from  their  list,  but  it  was  barely  lost. 

The  reason  for  this  failure  of  the  large  and  fine  English 
gooseberries  in  the  United  States  is  that  they  are  constantly 
attacked  by  mildew.  Any  number  of  remedies  have  been 
suggested  against  the  mildew  in  times  past,  the  most 
common  practice  being  to  mulch  the  ground  with  manure, 
stones,  tin  cans,  old  boots,  or  other  strange  material  which 
might  be  thought  to  possess  especial  virtue.  Salt  applied 
to  the  soil  was  vainly  tried,  and  at  one  time  grafting  the 
plants  on  the  Missouri  currant  was  thought  to  be  a  remedy. 
Any  of  these  things  which  afford  a  nearer  approach  toward 
the  ideal  conditions  demanded  by  the  gooseberry  will  aid 
in  preventing  the  mildew,  but  none  of  them  is  infallible. 
Yet  recent  experiments  show  that  under  favorable  con- 


298  Bush-Fruits 

ditions  we  can  grow  the  English  gooseberry  by  giving 
it  the  proper  attention.  Thorough  and  vigorous  treatment 
with  potassium  sulfide  or  with  Bordeaux  mixture,  as 
directed  under  the  discussion  of  this  disease,  will  hold  it 
in  check  and  admit  of  satisfactory  crops  being  obtained. 
No  slovenly  or  careless  work  will  answer;  the  treatment 
must  be  thorough,  and  done  at  the  right  time,  or  the  enemy 
will  still  gain  the  mastery. 

Whether  the  English  gooseberries  are  worth  growing, 
especially  for  home  use,  is  a  fair  question.  Their  only 
advantage  is  in  their  size  and  appearance,  which  of  course 
commend  them  for  market  growing.  Most  varieties  are 
inferior  to  our  own  in  quality.  Many  kinds  have  been 
grown  at  the  Geneva,  N.  Y.,  Experiment  Station  and 
under  their  methods  and  soil  conditions  some  of  them 
are  found  successful.  Mildew  has,  for  some  reason, 
been  less  troublesome  in  recent  years  than  formerly. 

Just  why  the  gooseberry  is  so  much  more  popular  with 
the  English  than  with  us  is  hard  to  explain.  Although 
their  varieties  surpass  ours  in  size,  they  do  not  in  quality. 
If  we  prized  them  as  highly  as  the  English  we  should 
doubtless  have  made  more  progress  in  improving  our  own 
varieties.  The  reader  will  find  another  account  of  goose- 
berries, by  Beach,  in  Bulletin  114,  New  York  Experi- 
ment Station. 


CHAPTER  XIII 
VARIETIES  OF  CURRANTS 

THE  currant  culture  of  the  United  States  is  largely 
founded  upon  the  European  species  bearing  the  name 
Ribes  vulgare,  Lam.,  although  almost  universally  known 
heretofore  as  R.  rubrum  (Fig.  40).  The  latter  name  is  now 
applied  to  the  northern  red  currant  found  chiefly  in  north- 
ern Europe  and  Asia,  which  is  rare  in  cultivation.  The 
two  species  differ  in  a  few  minor  botanical  characteristics. 
The  larger-leaved  and  large-fruited  type  known  as  "  cherry 
currants"  is  recognized  under  the  botanical  name  Ribes 
vulgare  var.  macrocarpum. 

In  its  wild  state  the  garden  currant  is  a  northern  plant, 
chiefly  found  in  cool  damp  locations,  and  it  thrives  best 
under  similar  conditions  in  garden  culture.  In  cultivation, 
it  has  become  somewhat  variable  in  character  of  fruit  and 
foliage.  Instances  are  reported  1  in  which  both  red  and 
white  fruits  have  been  produced  upon  the  same  branch. 
In  one  case  2  three  red,  three  white  and  one  striped  fruit 
were  found  in  the  same  cluster.  The  red  currant  of  north- 
ern North  America,  formerly  confused  with  the  garden 
currant  seems  to  be  the  swamp  red  currant,  now  known  as 
R.  triste,  Pall. 

The  European  black  currant  belongs  to  the  species  Ribes 

1  Darwin,  Animals  and  Plants  under  Domestication,  1 :  400. 

2  Gardener's  Chronicle,  26:  268. 

299 


300 


Bush-Fruits 


Fig.  40.  Ribes  vulgar e  (X2/3). 

nigrum,  Linn.  (Fig.  41).  This  species,  like  the  red  cur- 
rants, readily  adapts  itself  to  American  conditions,  but  the 
American  people  have  not  so  readily  adapted  their  tastes 
to  its  peculiar  flavor.  It  has  never  become  a  popular  fruit 
in  the  United  States. 

The  American  black  currant,  Ribes  americanum,  Mill., 
formerly  known  as  R.  floridum,  seems  to  possess  all  the 


Varieties  of  Currants 


301 


good  qualities  of  the  Euro- 
pean plant  and  is  more  or- 
namental.    In   recent  years 
this  species  has  received  some 
attention  from  plant- 
breeders,       notably 
Hansen     of     South 
Dakota,  in  his  effort 
to     breed     hardier ' 
fruits  for  the  North- 
west.   It  cannot  yet 
be  considered  a  po- 
mological  species. 

An       American 
black     currant     of- 
tener  seen  in  culti- 
vation is  the  Mis- 
souri   or    flowering 
currant,  now  given 
the  botanical  name 
R.  odoratum,  Wendl.,  but  much 
better  known  under  the  errone- 
ous name  R.  aureum.     This  is 
native  to  the  eastern  slopes  of 
the  Rocky   Mountains.      The 
better-known  name  R.  aureum 
is  now  confined  to  a  smaller-  Fis- 41-  R^eanigrum  (X2/0- 
flowered  species  more  commonly  found  west  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains.    The  fruit  of  this  black  currant  is  very  differ- 
ent from  that  of  the  two  preceding  species.     It  is  often 
large,  but  produced  in  few-flowered  clusters,  and  ripens 


302  Bush-Fruits 

singly  so  that  it  must  be  picked  one  by  one.  Its  flavor, 
though  peculiar,  has  not  the  mawkish  twang  of  the  true 
black  currants,  but  is  not  sprightly  enough  to  make  it  a 
good  culinary  fruit.  A  form  bearing  large  berries  is 
sometimes  offered  under  the  variety  name  of  Crandall. 

Several  species  possess  ornamental  qualities  of  value; 
these  are  discussed  later. 

HISTORY   OF   THE    CULTIVATED    CURRANT 

The  currant  is  thought  to  have  been  unknown  to  the 
Greeks  and  Romans,  as  no  mention  of  it  is  found  in  any 
of  their  writings.  It  seems  to  have  first  come  prominently 
into  cultivation  about  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century, 
and  according  to  Sturtevant,1  received  its  modern  im- 
proved form  within  fifty  years  following.  The  early 
English  names  "corans"  and  "currans"  are  thought  to 
have  been  derived  from  the  resemblance  of  the  fruit  to  the 
little  Corinth  grapes  or  raisins,  these  in  turn  taking  their 
names  from  Corinth.  In  England,  at  times,  currants  were 
known  as  "red  gooseberries"  and  "beyond-sea  goose- 
berries. "  An  equivalent  to  the  latter  name,  "groseilles 
d'outre  mer,"  was  also  applied  to  them  in  France.  These 
names  indicate  that,  if  not  native  to  these  countries,  the 
cultivated  forms,  at  least,  were  received  from  elsewhere. 
The  Dutch  name  "over-zee"  indicates  the  same  thing. 
Sturtevant  thinks  that  the  currant  was  first  brought  into 
culture  from  the  northern  countries  through  the  Danes 
and  Normans,  though  DeCandolle  appears  to  doubt  this.2 

1  History  of  the  Currant,  Trans.  Western  New  York  Hort.  Soc., 
1887:55. 

2  Origin  of  Cultivated  Plants,  277. 


History  of  the  Cultivated  Currant  303 

The  greatest  improvement,  however,  seems  to  have  been 
in  the  low  countries. 

All  the  principal  types  of  the  cultivated  currants  are 
found  in  the  wild  plants,  and  were  reported  at  an  early 
date.  Improvement  has  only  been  within  a  limited 
range.  Culture  and  fertility  often  appear  to  have  a  greater 
influence  on  this  fruit  than  parentage.  Thos.  Andrew 
Knight  *  was  of  the  opinion  that  by  repeated  growth 
from  seed  the  currant  would  become  sweeter,  and  perhaps 
in  time,  even  insipid.  The  majority  of  seedlings  grown 
by  him  from  white  crossed  by  red  currants  were  red,  but 
many  first  turned  a  color  similar  to  the  White  Dutch,  and 
then  became  brighter  in  color  when  ripe.  He  expressed 
himself  as  surprised  at  the  range  of  variation  which  ap- 
peared, it  being  much  greater  than  he  had  expected. 
Nearly  all  were  mild  and  sweeter  than  the  red  parents, 
some  were  insipid,  and  some  even  showed  a  medicinal 
flavor.  Experience  does  not  seem  to  bear  out  his  expecta- 
tions in  regard  to  an  increasing  sweetness,  as  the  newer 
varieties  are  many  of  them  more  acid  than  older  ones. 

Currant  seedlings  appear  not  to  vary  widely  as  a  rule 
and  show  little  tendency  to  reversion,  though  one  writer 
has  reported  that  seedlings  of  Fay  are  generally  smaller 
than  the  parent  and  that  nearly  half  of  them  were  white. 
Perhaps  through  its  long  sojourn  in  the  low  countries 
the  currant  has  inherited  something  of  the  staid  Dutch 
qualities  of  the  inhabitants,  and  does  not  readily  depart 
from  long  established  customs.  Yet  no  fruit,  however 
stable,  can  long  resist  the  influences  of  persistent  and  sys- 
tematic breeding,  and  the  currant  has  received  too  little 
1  Trans.  London  Hort.  Soc.  3:  86. 


304  Bush-Fruits 

attention  in  this  line.  There  is  no  need  that  the  currant 
should  depart  widely  from  the  present  types,  for  there  is 
nothing  wrong  with  them.  A  steady  improvement  along 
these  same  lines,  with  perhaps  a  limited  reduction  in 
acidity,  is  all  that  is  needed,  and  there  is  no  reason  why 
this  should  not  go  on  as  long  as  horticulture  exists. 

The  lists  in  this  chapter  and  the  next  are  intended  to 
catalogue  all  the  varieties  of  currants  and  gooseberries 
which  have  become  prominent  in  this  country  up  to  the 
close  of  1916. 

RED   AND   WHJTE   CURRANTS 

(Ribes  vulgare) 

Attractor. — A  variety  from  France.  Fruit  medium  to  large, 
yellowish  white.  Bunches  short. 

Berlin  Seedling. — Appears  in  the  catalogue  of  the  American 
Pomological  Society  for  1869. 

Boston  Lady.— A  white  variety.— Gar.  Month.  1860:  250. 

Bronze. — Mentioned  in  Hovey's  Magazine  for  1861,  p.  101. 

Buist  Long-bunched. — Originated  by  Robert  Buist  of  Philadelphia, 
Pa.  Fruit  similar  to  Red  Dutch  in  flavor.  Bunches  long  and  taper- 
ing. Leaves  large  and  very  thick. 

Caywood  Seedling. — A  seedling  received  at  the  Geneva  (N.  Y.) 
Experiment  Station  from  A.  J.  Caywood  &  Son,  of  Marlboro,  N.  Y. 
Described  as  a  moderate  grower,  with  spreading  or  drooping 
branches,  very  productive.  Fruit  more  acid  than  the  White  Grape, 
of  good  quality,  attractive,  translucent,  tinged  with  pale  greenish 
yellow.  Bunches  of  medium  size,  about  two  and  one-half  inches 
long.  Berries  large. 

Champagne  (Pheasant's  Eye,  Groseillier  a  Fruit  Couleur  de  Chair). 
— Of  foreign  origin.  Fruit  large,  acid,  delicate  reddish  pink,  like  a 
cross  between  the  red  and  white,  though  the  wood,  foliage,  and 
growth  place  it  among  the  reds. 

Champion. — A  white  variety,  with  berries  a  shade  lighter  than 


Plate  XI.    Two  good  currants. — Chautauqua  above;  Diploma  below. 


Red  and  White  Currants  305 

White  Dutch  and  inferior  to  it  in  appearance,  flavor,  and  quality. — 
Geneva  (N.  Y.)  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  95:  427. 

Chautauqua  (Climbing). — Found  in  the  woods  by  R.  F.  Lonnen, 
Mayville,  N.  Y.,  about  1893.  Introduced  by  The  Curtice  Nursery 
Company  about  1902.  Plants  large,  vigorous,  upright-spreading, 
healthy  and  very  productive.  Stems  unusually  long,  free  from  berries 
at  the  base.  Fruit  of  good  size,  light  red,  of  high  quality,  and  hanging 
well  after  ripening.  One  of  the  most  promising  varieties  at  the 
Geneva,  N.  Y.,  Experiment  Station.  The  tall  spreading  growth  of 
the  plants  led  to  its  being  introduced  as  a  climbing  currant.  It 
can  be  trained  to  a  trellis  if  desired.  Plate  XI. 

Cherry. — Obtained  from  Italy  by  M.  Adrienne  Seneclause,  a  dis- 
tinguished horticulturist  of  France.  He  received  it  among  a  lot  of 
other  currants  known  there  under  the  name  Ribes  acerifolium.  He 
gave  it  the  name  owing  to  the  size  of  the  fruit.  It  was  fruited  at 
the  Museum  of  Natural  History  in  1843,  and  from  the  plants  there 
grown  was  figured  in  the  "Annales  de  Flore  et  de  Pomone"  for  Feb. 
1844.  (Roe  says  1848.)  It  was  brought  to  the  notice  of  fruit- 
growers in  the  United  States  by  Dr.  William  W.  Valk,  of  Flushing, 
L.  I.,  in  1846.1  It  was  figured  in  the  Horticulturist  as  a  frontispiece 
to  the  volume  for  1854;  also  in  Hovey's  Magazine,  1855,  p.  425.  A 
popular  well-known  variety  largely  planted  both  for  market  and 
home  use.  Described  as  vigorous,  stocky,  and  compact  when  young, 
but  becoming  spreading  with  age,  not  suckering  as  freely  as  other 
kinds.  Fruit  borne  in  short-stemmed  clusters  close  to  the  wood, 
which  renders  it  somewhat  difficult  to  pick.  Fruit  averaging  large, 
though  not  uniformly  so,  juicy,  and  fine  flavored.  Color  bright  red. 

Comet. — A  British  variety  so  nearly  like  Fay  as  to  be  practically 
identical,  if  not  the  same.  Said  to  have  originated  in  Guernsey. 

Dana  White. — A  white  variety  raised  in  Massachusetts.  Fuller 
says  that  he  obtained,  from  what  he  supposed  to  be  a  reliable  source 
five  distinct  varieties  under  this  name. 

Diploma. — Originated  by  Jacob  Moore  of  Brighton,  N.  Y.,  from 

seeds  of  Cherry  crossed  with  White  Grape,  sown  in  1885.    Introduced 

by  Charles  A.  Green  in  1906.    Plant  vigorous,  upright,  productive, 

bearing  long  clusters.    Fruit  light  red,  more  transparent  than  other 

1  Horticulturist,  1 :  439. 


306  Bush-Fruits 

red  varieties,  seeds  large  and  numerous,  flavor  mild.  Fruit  juicy, 
demanding  careful  handling.  Plate  XI. 

Dr.  Brete. — A  French  variety  imported  and  cultivated  by  William 
S.  Carpenter.  Illustrated  with  a  full  page  engraving  in  the  Horticul- 
turist for  1870,  p.  45. 

Eclipse. — Received  at  the  Geneva  (N.  Y.)  Experiment  Station 
from  H.  S.  Anderson,  of  Union  Springs,  N.  Y.  Described  as  vig- 
orous, upright,  with  bunches  of  medium  length.  Fruit  varying  in 
size,  with  heavy  juice,  good  for  jellies. 

Empire. — Reported  as  lacking  hardiness  and  productiveness  at 
the  Virginia  Experiment  Station.  Fruit  large,  bright  ruby-red  but 
stems  short. 

Fay. — Said  to  be  a  seedling  of  Cherry  or  Victoria,  which  originated 
in  1868  with  Lincoln  Fay,  in  Chautauqua  county,  N.  Y.  It  was 
introduced  about  1883.  Vigorous,  though  somewhat  spreading,  with 
the  lower  branches  often  trailing  on  the  ground.  Clusters  long,  with 
a  good  stem  between  the  branch  and  the  fruit,  making  it  easy  to 
gather.  Fruit  varying  from  medium  to  large,  uniform  in  size,  of 
good  quality,  darker  than  Red  Dutch. 

Filler. — Originated  in  Ulster  County,  N.  Y.  A  favorite  about 
Marlboro,  N.  Y.  Described  as  a  strong  grower  but  with  a  very 
sprawling  growth,  many  branches  lying  on  the  ground.  Clusters 
compact  and  large,  easy  to  pick  but  hanging  well  on  the  bushes. 
Fruit  large,  attractive  and  rich;  plant  productive.  Believed  by  some 
to  be  the  same  as  Fay.  It  is  offered  by  W.  N.  Scarff  of  Ohio  under 
the  name  Scarff. 

Franco-German. — Healthy,  productive,  bearing  very  large  clusters 
and  holding  its  fruit  late  in  the  fall. 

Gloire  de  Sablons. — Fruit  small,  white,  striped  or  splashed  with 
red. 

Gloucester  Red.  Described  in  Tilton's  Journal  of  Horticulture  for 
1871,  p.  188. 

Gondoin  Red  (Red  Provence). — Said  to  have  been  named  from 
the  town  in  France  where  it  originated.  By  some  this  is  regarded 
as  the  same  as  Red  Provence,  and  is  apparently  mentioned  by  Prince 
under  this  name  in  the  Horticulturist,  Vol.  2,  p.  266.  In  the  Gar- 
dener's Monthly  for  1876,  p.  209,  the  editor,  Thomas  Meehan, 


Red  and  White  Currants  307 

mentions  Raby  Castle,  May's  Victoria,  and  Imperiale  Rouge  as 
synonyms. 

Holland  (Long-Bunched  Holland)  (Long-Bunched  Red  [?],  Red 
Dutch  Long-Bunched  [?]). — A  popular  variety  in  many  parts  of  the 
West.  Described  as  an  upright  grower,  the  young  wood  reddish  in 
color;  productive;  ripening  late,  somewhat  resembling  Victoria. 
Retains  its  foliage  and  fruit  later  in  the  season  than  most  vari- 
eties. 

Imperial  Yellow  (Imperiale  Jaune,  White  Imperial). — Said  to  be 
practically  identical  with  White  Grape. 

Indiana. — Introduced  by  J.  E.  Shideler,  of  Indianapolis,  Ind. 

Knight  Early  Red. — A  variety  originated  by  Thomas  Andrew 
Knight,  of  England. 

Knight  Large  Red. — Another  of  Mr.  Knight's  seedlings.  Described 
as  large,  bright  red,  bunches  large,  and  productive. 

Knight  Sweet  Red. — Described  as  large,  dark  red,  bunch  long, 
tapering.  Similar  in  quality  to  the  Red  Dutch. 

La  Hative  (Hative  de  Bertin,  La  Fertile). — A  French  variety 
mentioned  by  Downing  as  a  failure.  In  the  Gardener's  Monthly 
for  1876,  p.  209,  the  editor,  Thomas  Meehan,  gives  this  as  a  synonym 
of  Red  Dutch. 

Lakewood. — A  new  red  variety  on  trial  in  Michigan.  Said  to  be 
a  good  grower,  but  not  productive. — Mich.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  118:  20. 

London  Market. — Mentioned  as  an  English  variety  imported  in 
1878;  somewhat  resembling  Fay,  though  more  delicate  in  texture, 
with  seeds  large  and  numerous. — U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Rept.  1891:  395. 

London  Red  (Short-Bunched  Red). — Clusters  with  a  very  short 
stem.  Fruit  similar  to  Red  Dutch  in  quality  and  color. — Geneva 
(N.  Y.)  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  95:  418. 

Magnum  Bonum. — Mentioned. — Horticulturist,  1854: 11. 

Marvin  Seedling. — Received  at  the  Geneva  (N.  Y.)  Experiment 
Station  from  D.  S.  Marvin,  of  Watertown,  N.  Y.  Described  as 
moderately  vigorous,  and  upright.  Fruit  one  of  the  largest  of  the 
white  currants.  Resembles  White  Grape  in  color,  but  more  acid. 
Controlled  by  J.  C.  Vaughan,  of  Chicago. — N.  Y.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull. 
95:  427. 

Mills  Nos.  20,  22,  28  and  29.    On  trial  at  the  Geneva  (N.  Y.) 


308  Bush-Fruits 

Experiment  Station  at  one  time.  Received  from  Charles  Mills,  of 
Fairmount,  N.  Y.  Said  to  be  seedlings  of  the  Versaillaise  crossed 
by  Red  Dutch. 

North  Star. — An  accidental  seedling,  introduced  by  the  Jewell 
Nursery  Company  of  Lake  City,  Minn.  Described  as  vigorous, 
upright,  or  somewhat  spreading.  Bunches  of  medium  length.  Fruit 
much  like  Red  Dutch,  variable  in  size. 

Palluau  (Fertile  de  Palluau). — Mentioned  by  Downing  and  Fuller 
as  a  French  variety  of  vigorous,  upright  growth,  and  productive. 
Fruit  large,  bright  red,  resembling  Red  Dutch.  Thomas  Meehan  l 
gives  this  as  a  synonym  of  Red  Dutch. 

Palmer  Sweet  Red. — Mentioned  in  the  Horticulturist  for  1824, 
p.  161,  as  a  fine,  long-bunched,  large-berried  variety  of  vigorous 
growth,  and  productive. 

Perfection. — Originated  by  Chas.  G.  Hooker,  Rochester,  N.  Y., 
in  1887,  by  crossing  White  Grape  and  Fay.  Introduced  by  C.  M. 
Hooker  &  Sons,  in  1902.  Intermediate  between  its  parents  in  char- 
acter of  plant.  Fruit  borne  along  old  wood  like  White  Grape,  ex- 
celling Fay  in  size  of  both  cluster  and  berry,  large  to  the  tip,  with 
good  length  of  stem  at  base.  Color  bright  red,  flavor  and  quality 
excellent. 

Pitmaston  Sweet  Red. — Mentioned  in  the  same  place  as  the  sweet- 
est of  all  red  currants,  having  short  bunches,  and  small  fruit.  Said 
to  have  been  raised  by  Mr.  Williams,  of  Pitmaston. 

Pomona. — Introduced  by  Albertson  &  Hobbs,  of  Bridgeport,  In- 
diana. Vigorous,  productive;  fruit  medium  to  large,  bright  red, 
sweet  and  excellent,  hanging  for  a  long  time  after  ripening.  A  de- 
pendable variety. 

Prince  Albert. — Described  as  vigorous,  more  upright  than  Red 
Dutch,  and  a  very  heavy  yielder,  though  a  weak  grower  when  young. 
Bunches  short  to  medium.  Fruit  medium  to  large,  rather  pale 
red,  of  poor  quality,  ripening  late.  Profitable  and  popular  at 
canneries. 

Purity. — Plant  low-growing  and  sprawling.    Fruit  yellowish  white. 

Red  Cross. — Originated  by  Jacob  Moore,  of  Attica,  N.  Y.  A 
cross  between  Cherry  and  White  Grape.  Vigorous  and  upright, 
*Gar.  Month.  1876:209. 


Red  and  White  Currants  309 

clusters  large  and  easily  picked;  fruit  medium  to  large,  lighter,  milder 
and  somewhat  later  than  Cherry.  Introduced  by  Green's  Nursery 
Company. 

Red  Dutch  (Large-Bunched  Red,  Long-Bunched  Red,  Morgan's 
Red,  Groseillier  Rouge  a  Grosse  Fruit). — Meehan  l  also  gives  the 
following  list  as  synonyms  of  this  variety:  Fertile,  Fertile  d'Angle- 
terre,  Fertile  de  Palluau,  Fertile  de  Bertin,  La  Hative,  Hative  de 
Bertin,  Bertin  No.  9,  Belle  de  St.  Gilles,  Chenonceaux,  Grosse  Rouge 
de  Boulogne,  Queen  Victoria,  and  Red  Grape.  One  of  the  oldest  and 
best  known  varieties.  It  is  still  retained  by  some  growers  in  the 
West,  and  perhaps  elsewhere.  A  strong  grower,  rather  tall,  upright, 
with  comparatively  slender  shoots,  productive.  Fruit  of  fine  color 
and  sprightly  flavor,  but  not  large. 

Red  Grape. — Mentioned  by  Fuller  as  having  foliage  not  shining, 
as  with  the  Red  Dutch. 

Ruby. — Raised  by  Jacob  Moore,  the  originator  of  the  Brighton 
Grape,  from  seed  of  the  Cherry  believed  to  have  been  crossed  by 
White  Grape.  Described  as  not  equal  to  Versaillaise  or  Cherry  in 
size,  but  with  larger  bunches  and  better  fruit;  productive.  Excellent 
in  some  localities. 

Scarlet  Gem. — Plant  low-growing  and  coarse;  fruit  small,  pleasant, 
pinkish  white. 

Select . — Said  by  T.  T.  Lyon  to  lack  in  vigor  and  productiveness. — 
Mich.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  118:  20. 

Short-Bunched  Red. — Mentioned  by  Downing  as  much  like  Red 
Dutch,  with  shorter  bunches. 

Silver-Mine. — Offered  by  the  Gardner  Nursery  Company  of  Iowa, 
Described  as  prolific,  large,  red,  of  fine  flavor,  holding  its  leaves  and 
fruit  very  late. 

Stewart  ('s  Seedling). — A  Minnesota  variety,  mentioned  as  not 
having  received  its  share  of  notice.  Said  to  be  the  handsomest  in 
bush  and  berry  of  any  variety  grown  in  that  state.  Vigorous,  up- 
right, prolific  and  hardy.  Fruit  somewhat  hidden  by  the  leaves, 
large,  borne  in  good  sized  bunches,  remaining  a  long  time  after  ripen- 
ing without  injury. — Ann.  Rept.  Minn.  Exp.  Sta.  1888:  235. 

Striped  Fruited  (Silver  Striped). — An  old  German  variety.  Men- 
1  Gar.  Month.  1876:  209. 


310  Bush-Fruits 

tioned  by  Downing  and  Fuller  as  being  distinctly  striped,  but  small, 
a  poor  bearer,  and  of  no  value  except  as  a  curiosity. 

Transparent  (Transparent  White,  Transparent  Blanc). — A  French 
variety  mentioned  by  Downing  and  Fuller.  Said  to  be  a  seedling 
of  the  White  Grape,  and  to  resemble  that  variety  so  closely  as  to  be 
practically  identical. 

Versaillaise  (La)  (Versailles,  Macrocarpa,  Fertile  d' Angers,  La 
Caucase,  Caucasian).  Originated  by  M.  Bertin,  of  Versailles,  from 
seed  of  the  Cherry  currant,  and  similar  to  that  variety.  This  is  one 
of  the  best  known  market  currants,  and  very  generally  prized. 
E.  P.  Powell  says  l  that  the  true  Versaillaise  is  not  unlike  Fay  in 
size  and  color,  a  rather  more  upright  grower,  with  a  long,  fine  stem, 
enormously  productive.  Flavor  almost  like  Fay. 

Victoria  (May's  Victoria,  Goliath,  Raby  Castle,  Red  Grape, 
Houghton  Castle,  Wilmot's  Red  Grape).  Said  to  have  been  known 
in  Hexham  and  New  Castle  as  the  Houghton  Castle  currant.  Sent 
from  there  to  Raby  Castle,  whence  it  was  procured  by  Mr.  May,  of 
Learning  Lane,  and  advertised  by  him  as  May's  Victoria.  One  of 
the  most  reliable  red  currants  known.  A  very  strong  grower,  up- 
right, very  productive.  Foliage  rather  pale  green.  Fruit  bright  red, 
medium  or  above  in  size,  mildly  acid,  late  in  coloring,  but  will  keep 
on  the  bushes  in  good  condition  later  than  either  Cherry  or  Red 
Dutch.  Less  liable  to  attacks  of  the  currant  borer  than  most  other 
sorts.  Victoria,  Holland  and  Prince  Albert  seem  to  belong  to  a  some- 
what distinct  class,  being  able  to  retain  their  leaves  and  fruit  better 
than  most  sorts. 

Warner's  Red  Grape,  Warrior's  Grape. — English  varieties  men- 
tioned in  Tilton's  Journal  of  Horticulture,  Vol.  9,  p.  188.  Perhaps 
synonyms  of  other  sorts. 

White  Dutch  (White  Crystal,  White  Clinton,  Reeves'  White, 
Morgan's  White,  White  Antwerp,  White  Leghorn,  Clarke's  Sweet; 
White  Holland,  White  Pearl).  Very  similar  to  Red  Dutch  in  habit. 
Bush  vigorous,  upright  and  productive.  Fruit  variable  in  size,  trans- 
lucent, slightly  darker  than  White  Grape,  mildly  acid;  quality 
excellent,  very  rich  and  sweet.  A  well-known  old  sort. 

White  Grape  (White  Antwerp,  Imperial  White  [?],  Imperial  Blanc). 
1  Garden  and  Forest  7: 188. 


Red  and  White  Currants  311 

— Probably  the  best  known  and  finest  white  currant  grown.  De- 
scribed as  moderately  vigorous,  rather  slender,  somewhat  spreading, 
productive.  Bunches  long,  berries  quite  uniformly  large,  translucent, 
whitish,  attractive,  mild  in  flavor  and  of  fine  quality.  E.  P.  Powell 
says  1  that  it  was  long  before  he  secured  the  genuine  White  Grape. 
This  he  considers  to  be  absolutely  the  finest  white  currant  grown. 
The  fruit  is  large,  handsome,  clear  in  color,  entirely  unlike  the 
creamy  color  of  the  more  common  so-called  white  currants. 

White  Imperial. — A  variety  strongly  recommended  by  S.  D.  Wil- 
lard,  of  Geneva,  N.  Y.  Said  to  be  by  far  the  sweetest  currant  known, 
the  difference  in  that  respect  being  like  that  of  the  sweet  and  sour 
cherry.  Clusters  and  berries  of  good  size. 

White  Pearl. — Mentioned  and  described,  in  Hovey's  Magazine, 
Vol.  17,  p.  217,  as  raised  by  Remi  Wilquet  near  Brussels.  Perhaps 
not  introduced  in  America.  Fuller  gives  this  name  as  a  synonym 
of  White  Dutch. 

White  Provence. — Mentioned  by  Downing,  Prince,  and  Fuller. 
Said  to  be  strong,  upright,  with  leaves  more  or  less  silvered  at  the 
edge.  Fruit  large,  yellowish  white. 

White  Versaillaise. — Said  to  have  been  raised  by  M.  Bertin,  of 
Versailles,  France.  Vigorous,  upright,  easily  picked.  Bunches  long; 
berries  large,  slightly  darker  than  White  Grape. 

Wilder. — A  seedling  of  the  Versaillaise  which  originated  in  the 
seventies  with  E.  Y.  Teas,  of  Irvington,  Ind.,  who  named  and  dis- 
seminated it  to  a  limited  extent.  Later  the  stock  was  sold  to  S.  D. 
Willard,  of  Geneva,  N.  Y.,  who  catalogued  it  as  "President  Wilder." 
Said  by  him  to  be  the  most  productive  currant  which  he  had  tried. 
Described  as  vigorous,  upright.  Fruit  large,  but  not  so  uniform  as 
Fay,  of  fine  color,  lighter  than  Fay,  remaining  bright  and  attractive 
until  very  late  in  the  season.  Flavor  mild,  quality  good.  Demands 
heavy  pruning.  A  reliable  variety. 

1  Garden  and  Forest  7: 188. 


312 


Bush-Fruits 


EUROPEAN  BLACK  CURRANTS 

(Ribes  nigrum) 

Baldwin. — Described  as  moderately  vigorous  and  productive. 
Flavor  milder  than  that  of  the  Common  Black. 

Bang  Up. — Mentioned  by  Downing  as  a  variety  similar,  and  in 
no  way  superior,  to  the  Black  English. 


Fig.  42.  Black  Naples  currant. 


Black  Grape  (Odgen's  Black  Grape). — A  vigorous  grower,  but 
unproductive.  Fruit  variable,  strong  flavored. 

Black  Naples.  (Fig.  42). — One  of  the  best  known  English  sorts. 
Vigorous,  moderately  productive.  Fruit  variable,  strong  flavored. 

Black  Victoria. — Growing  at  the  Geneva,  N.  Y.,  Experiment 
Station. 

Booskoop  Giant. — A  black  currant  from  Holland.    Vigorous  and 


European  Black  Currants 


313 


productive.    Fruit  suitable  for  preserving,  very  large,  hanging  for  a 
long  time  on  the  bushes. 

Brown-Fruited    (Green-Fruited,    Russian    Green). — An    English 
variety  having  greenish 
brown  fruit  when  ripe. 
Berries  dry,  hard,  rank 
flavored  and  worthless. 

Champion.  —  D  e  s  - 
cribed  as  of  dwarf,  up- 
right habit,  fairly  pro- 
ductive. Fruit  of  large 
size,  borne  in  short 
clusters,  mild  flavored. 

Common  Black  (Black 
English).  — Described 
as  vigorous  and  pro- 
ductive, of  spreading 
habit.  Fruit  medium 
to  large,  the  clusters 
ripening  evenly.  Pulp 
rather  acid  and  strong 
flavored. 

Dwarf  Black. — Men- 
tioned in  the  Horticul- 
turist for  1854,  p.  162, 
as  of  more  dwarf  habit 
than  the  other  blacks. 

Lee  (Lee's  Prolific).— 
Bush  dwarfish,  mod- 
erately vigorous,  pro- 
ductive. Fruit  bright, 
but  not  much  better 
than  Black  Naples. 

Prince  of  Wales. — Origin  Ontario.  Bush  vigorous  and  productive, 
giving  the  highest  yield  of  all  black  currants  at  Geneva,  N.  Y.  Fruit 
variable  in  size,  milder  in  flavor  than  the  Common  Black,  nearly 
sweet  when  fully  ripe. 


Fig.  43.  Ribes  americanum 


314  Bush-Fruits 

Sauriders. — Originated  by  William  Saunders,  of  Ontario.  De- 
scribed as  vigorous  and  productive.  Variable  in  size,  rather  mild. 
Fairly  well  disseminated  and  promising  in  Canada. 

THE   GOLDEN   OR  BUFFALO   CURRANT 

(Ribes  odoratum) 

Crandall. — The  best  known  variety  of  this  species,  although  the 
plants  sent  out  under  that  name  differ  so  much  that  they  are  sup- 
posed to  have  been  only  seedlings.  Like  the  forms  found  in  unnum- 
bered door-yards,  known  as  the  Flowering  Currant,  this  is  a  tall, 
vigorous,  upright  bush.  Although  apparently  productive,  the  aver- 
age yield  per  bush  at  the  Geneva  (N.  Y.)  Experiment  Station  for 
three  years  was  less  than  one  pound.  The  fruit  has  a  tough  skin  and 
such  a  peculiar  flavor  that  it  is  little  prized. 

Deseret. — Another  named  variety  of  this  species.  Mentioned  by 
Fuller,  who  says  it  was  highly  valued  by  the  Mormons  of  Salt  Lake 
City,  whence  he  received  it. 

Golden. — Apparently  a  variety  of  the  western  representative  of 
this  species,  (Ribes  aureum),  since  it  is  described  by  Fuller  as 
"large,  round,  deep  golden  yellow,  very  acid,  and  slightly  bitter. 
Flowers  yellow.  Of  no  value  for  its  fruit,  but  might  be  improved. 
Native  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  a  variety  of  Ribes  aureum." 

Jetty. — Received  at  the  Geneva  (N.  Y.)  Experiment  Station  from 
R.  H.  Blair  &  Company,  Kansas  City,  Mo.,  being  selected  plants  of 
this  species  obtained  in  western  Kansas.  Found  to  be  of  larger  size 
and  more  productive  than  Crandall. 

This  species  has  often  been  known  under  the  name  Missouri 
Currant.  It  has  also  appeared  at  times  under  other  names,  such  as 
Utah,  Utah  Hybrid,  etc. 

THE  AMERICAN  BLACK  CURRANT  (FIG.  43) 

(Ribes  americanum) 

This  species  is  almost  unknown  in  cultivation,  yet  Fuller  men- 
tions one  variety  under  the  name  Sweet-fruited  Missouri,  which  he 
describes  as  large,  black,  roundish  ovoid.  Bunches  small,  containing 


Recommended  Varieties  of  Currants         315 

few  berries  of  sweet,  musky  flavor.  He  says  that  it  is  a  slight  im- 
provement upon  the  common  wild  black  currant,  which  may  be 
found  in  almost  any  low,  moist  woods.  The  species  is  being  used 
as  a  basis  for  plant-breeding  work  in  the  Northwest. 

RECOMMENDED   VARIETIES   OF   CURRANTS 

The  Cherry  currant  is  still  considered  one  of  the  most 
desirable  large-fruited  varieties.  Fay  is  preferred  in  some 
localities,  having  longer  bunches,  more  easily  picked,  and 
being  more  uniform  is  size,  but  inferior  in  yield  and  in 
habit  of  growth.  Victoria,  Prince  Albert  and  Wilder  are 
good  late  varieties,  remaining  in  good  condition  for  ship- 
ping longer  than  either  Cherry  or  Fay.  Chautauqua  is 
one  of  the  promising  newer  varieties.  Prince  Albert  is 
one  of  the  most  productive,  and  popular  for  jelly.  Vic- 
toria is  only  medium  in  size.  White  Imperial  and  White 
Grape  are  good  white  varieties,  though  white  currants 
are  little  grown.  Prince  of  Wales  is  a  productive  black 
variety. 


CHAPTER  XIV 


VARIETIES  OF  GOOSEBERRIES 

THE  gooseberries  cultivated  for  fruit  belong  to  two  dis- 
tinct types,  the  European  and  the  American.  The  former 
are  representatives  of  the  species 
known  as  Ribes  Grossularia,  Linn. 
(Fig.  44) .  The  botanical  origin  of 
the  American  type  is  somewhat 
confused.  Formerly  it  was 
thought  that  R.  oxyacanthoides, 
Linn.,  is  the  parent  of  nearly  all 
our  cultivated  varieties.  But  it 
was  the  eastern  form  of  this  type, 
now  given  the  specific  name  R. 
hirtellum,  that  is  chiefly  involved. 
Several  of  our  best-known  vari- 
eties, such  as  Downing  and 
Houghton,  are  considered  to  be 
hybrids  between  this  and  the 
European  type. 

One  or  two  other  native  species 
are  already  represented  or  are  be- 
ing used  by  plant-breeders  in  the 
Grossula-  development  of  varieties  suited  to 

particular  regions. 
Ribes  Cynosbati,  Linn.,  the  prickly-fruited  eastern  goose- 
berry has  played  little  part  in  the  development  of  American 

316 


44.     Ribes 

ria  (XI). 


Varieties  of  Gooseberries  317 

varieties,  the  variety  Mountain  being  the  only  one  of 
prominence  known  to  have  been  derived  in  part  from  this 
species.  The  prickly  character  of  the  fruit  is  against  it, 
but  smooth-fruited  forms  occur  and  the  fruit  is  larger  than 
that  of  R.  hirtellum. 

Ribes  setosum,  Lindl.  and  R.  inerme,  Rydb.  are  believed 
to  be  sparingly  represented  in  cultivation.  The  former 
appears  to  be  a  gradation 
species  of  a  series  begin- 
ning with  R.  hirtellum  in 
the  East,  R.  oxyacan- 
thoides  of  the  Plains,  R. 
setosum,  from  northwest- 
ern Nebraska  west  and 
northward  and  R.  irri- 
guum,  of  the  Pacific  slope. 

Ribes  missouriense, 
Nutt.,  the  fragile-flowered 
gooseberry  of  the  Plains, 
more  commonly  known  as 
R.  gracile  (Fig.  45),  is  a 
promising  species  for  that  „.  /v./x 

Fig.  45.  Ribes  missounense  (XVs). 

region    and    has    been 

largely  used  in  plant-breeding  work  at  the  South  Dakota 
Experiment  Station  in  seeking  to  develop  varieties  better 
adapted  to  the  northern  Plains  region.  This  species  and 
the  form  commonly  known  as  R.  rotundifolium  have  also 
been  used  by  W.  F.  Vanfleet  in  producing  hybrids  in  the 
East,  with  promising  results.  ("  Rural  New  Yorker", 
1907:622.) 
The  European  species  (Ribes  Grossularia)  has  been  long 


318  Bush-Fruits 

in  cultivation  and  its  fruit  greatly  improved,  at  least  in 
size  and  appearance,  while  the  American,  being  young  in 
cultivation,  is  far  behind  in  size,  though  superior  in 
quality.  The  English  varieties  all  have  a  thick,  rough 
skin,  that  detracts  from  their  value,  and  they  are  even 
more  sour  than  our  own.  The  susceptibility  of  English 
varieties  to  mildew,  which  has  been  the  chief  cause  of 
their  failure  in  the  United  States,  is  really  the  most  promi- 
nent distinction  between  the  two  species  at  the  present 
time.  The  European  type  is  essentially  a  stocky  and 
close  grower  whereas  the  American  type  is  a  slender  and 
open  grower.  Plate  XII. 

HISTORY  AND   FUTURE 

Like  the  currant,  the  gooseberry  appears  not  to  have 
been  known  to  the  ancients,  and  it  is  uncertain  when  it 
first  began  to  receive  garden  culture.  Although  long 
common  among  the  hedges  and  woods  of  England,  it  is 
thought  by  most  authors  not  to  have  been  indigenous. 
It  is  reported,  as  first  mentioned  by  British  authors, 
about  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century.  Geo.  W. 
Johnson  1  states  that  Tusser,  in  his  "Five  Hundred  Points 
of  Good  Husbandry,"  published  during  1557,  mentions 
the  gooseberry  as  then  among  garden  fruits.  Johnson's 
edition  of  Gerarde's  "Herbal,"  published  in  1636,  says: 
"There  be  divers  sorts  of  the  gooseberries,  some  greater, 
others  lesse;  some  round,  others  long,  and  some  of  a  red 
color.  .  .  .  The  sorts  of  gooseberries  are  these:  the  long 
greene,  the  great  yellowish,  the  blew,  the  great  round  red, 
1  The  Cucumber  and  Gooseberry,  p.  103. 


Industry,  the  European  type. 


Pale  Red,  the  American  type. 
Plate  XII.     Two  types  of  gooseberry. 


History  and  Future  319 

the  long  red,  and  the  prickly  gooseberry."  The  further 
statement  is  made  that  "These  plants  doe  grow  in  London 
gardens  and  elsewhere  in  great  abundance."  Under  the 
heading  of  names,  the  statement  is  that  "this  shrub  hath 
no  name  among  old  Writers,  who  as  we  deeme  knew  it  not, 
or  else  esteemed  it  not;  the  later  writers  call  it  in  La  tine, 
Grossularia,  and  oftentimes  of  the  berries,  Uva  Crispa, 
Uva  spina,  Uva  spinella,  and  Uva  Crispina;  in  French, 
Groiselles;  in  English,  Gooseberry,  Gooseberry  bush  and 
Fea-berry  bush  in  Cheshire,  my  native  country."  This 
latter  name  was  also  known  in  other  parts  of  England, 
being  abbreviated  into  Feabes  or  Fapes  in  some  localities. 
Most  authors  have  thought  that  the  name  gooseberry 
was  derived  from  the  fruit  having  been  first  used  as  a 
sauce  with  "green  goose."  Others  doubt  this.  Geo.  W. 
Johnson  1  says:  "It  is  somewhat  unfortunate  for  this  deri- 
vation that  it  has  never  been  so  used.  It  seems  to  me  more 
probable  to  be  a  corruption  of  the  Dutch  name  Kruisbes, 
or  Gruisbes.  Kruisbes,  I  believe,  was  derived  from  Kruis, 
the  Cross,  and  Bes,  as  Berry,  because  the  fruit  was  ready 
for  use  just  after  the  Festival  of  the  Invention  of  the  Holy 
Cross;  just  as  Kruis-haring,  in  Dutch,  is  a  herring  caught 
after  the  same  festival."  2 

Loudon  states  3  that  the  first  marked  improvement  in 
size  was  made  by  the  Dutch.  But  its  present  remarkable 
development  has  been  brought  about  largely  by  the  efforts 

1  The  Cucumber  and  Gooseberry  ,  p.  109. 

2  An  excellent  early  account  of  the   gooseberries,  with  colored 
plates,  is  Thory's  "Monographic  on  histoire  naturelle  du  genre 
Groseillier,"  Paris,  1829.— L.  H.  B. 

3  Arboretum  et  Fruiticetum,  2:  973. 


320  Bush-Fruits 

of  the  Lancashire  weavers.  The  production  of  new  varie- 
ties, and  the  increase  in  size,  has  been  greatly  stimulated 
by  the  annual  shows  or  "gooseberry  prize  meetings,"  at 
which  liberal  prizes  are  offered  for  the  largest  fruits.  The 
results  of  these  are  published  in  the  "Gooseberry  Annual," 
now  forming  an  extensive  set.  At  the  beginning  of  the 
century  the  largest  fruits  seldom  exceeded  10  dwts.  in 
weight,  but  in  recent  years  they  frequently  exceed  30  dwts. 
Size  is  not  the  only  quality  sought;  some  sorts  are  prized 
for  their  flavor,  some  for  their  beauty,  and  others  for  their 
productiveness.  There  is  also  a  wide  diversity  in  the 
season  of  ripening  among  different  sorts. 

The  history  of  the  American  gooseberry  in  cultivation 
began  with  the  Houghton,  which  was  raised  from  seed  of 
a  wild  plant  by  Abel  Houghton,  of  Lynn,  Massachusetts, 
in  1833.  It  is  significant  that  the  most  reliable  American 
sort,  and  the  one  most  generally  cultivated  at  the  present 
time,  is  but  one  generation  removed  from  this,  being  a 
seedling  of  it. 

What  the  gooseberry  of  the  future  will  be  no  one  can 
say,  but  it  is  certain  to  be  largely  what  we  make  it.  It 
seems  safe  to  predict  that  it  will  not  come  from  England. 
Adaptability  to  climate,  with  consequent  resistance  to 
disease,  and  quality  of  the  fruit,  are  in  favor  of  American 
species.  We  have  given  the  gooseberry  too  little  atten- 
tion, and  much  of  that  has  been  on  the  wrong  basis  in 
trying  to  develop  seedlings  of  the  English  varieties.  The 
gooseberry  as  now  grown  is  objectionable  on  account  of 
its  thorns.  Yet  there  are  forms  comparatively  free  from 
these  uncomfortable  additions,  and  careful,  persuasive 
treatment  ought  to  induce  the  plants  to  relinquish  them 


The  Kinds  of  Gooseberries  321 

altogether.  An  English  variety  has  been  recently  intro- 
duced which  is  said  to  be  thornless.  The  fruit  of  our  species 
is,  in  most  cases,  perfectly  smooth,  while  that  of  the  Eng- 
lish gooseberry  is  roughly  pubescent,  if  not  hairy  or 
prickly  also. 


THE  KINDS  OF  GOOSEBERRIES 

In  the  following  list  of  varieties  those  known  to  be  of 
foreign  parentage  are  designated  by  the  letter  (F),  those 
believed  to  carry  an  admixture  of  both  types  are  marked 
by  the  letter  (H). 

Apex. — A  variety  from  Oregon.  Said  to  be  a  native  seedling, 
though  somewhat  resembling  the  European  type  in  growth  and 
general  appearance. — T.  T.  Lyon,  Mich.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  118:  23. 

Blucher  (F). — Very  large,  dark  red,  oblong  or  roundish  oblong, 
nearly  smooth,1  with  thin  skin,  sweet,  of  very  good  flavor.  Bush 
a  strong  grower,  apparently  productive,  with  but  little  mildew. 

Careless  (F). — Succeeds  at  the  New  York  Experiment  Station. 

Carman. — Described  as  large  golden  yellow,  very  hardy  and  re- 
markably free  from  mildew. 

Carrie. — Origin  Minnesota.  Vigorous,  hardy,  with  an  abundance 
of  leaves,  free  from  mildew  and  anthracnose,  nearly  thornless.  Fruit 
larger  than  Houghton,  turning  a  deep  maroon  when  ripe,  flavor 
excellent. 

Cedar  Hill  (H). — A  variety  mentioned  in  the  report  of  the  U.  S. 
Pomologist  for  1891,  p.  394,  as  received  from  Dr.  A.  W.  Thornton, 
West  Ferndale,  Washington,  with  whom  it  originated.  Described 
as  large,  oval,  with  long,  adhering  flower  parts,  and  a  few  scattering 

1  The  term  "smooth,"  as  used  in  describing  English  gooseberries, 
should  be  understood  to  mean  free  from  hairs,  for  the  ^kin  of  these 
varieties  has  a  roughness  to  the  touch  quite  different  from  that  of 
the  American  varieties. 


322  Bush-Fruits 

prickles.  Said  to  be  an  upright  grower,  of  good  size,  prolific.  Mildew 
proof  in  Washington.  Possibly  a  seedling  of  some  western  species. 

Champion. — Said  to  have  originated  with  O.  Dickinson,  Salem, 
Oregon.  Plant  upright,  prolific.  Fruit  large,  uniform,  transparent, 
with  tender  skin.  Said  to  endure  neglect  well,  and  to  be  an  excellent 
shipper.  Popular  in  Indiana. 

Chautauqua. — Origin  unknown.  It  first  came  to  notice  in  an  old 
garden  at  Dunkirk,  N.  Y.,  having  been  obtained  from  a  neighbor  who 
had  secured  it  from  some  other  source.  It  was  secured  by  Lewis 
Roesch,  who  introduced  it  in  1894.  Although  carrying  European 
blood,  if  not  a  pure-bred  European  sort,  the  Chautauqua  suffers 
but  little  from  mildew,  the  greatest  enemy  of  varieties  of  this  type. 
The  bush  is  stocky,  upright,  compact,  with  thick,  dark  shining  leaves 
like  other  European  varieties.  Productive  when  well  established. 
Fruit  large,  roundish-oval,  silvery  green,  flesh  green,  firm  and  sweet. 
Freedom,  Wellington  Glory  and  Portage  are  other  European  sorts 
said  to  resemble  Chautauqua.  Plate  XIII. 

Columbus  (F). — Introduced  by  Ellwanger  &  Barry,  of  Rochester, 
N.  Y.  A  strong  grower,  comparatively  free  from  mildew.  Fruit 
large,  oblong  or  roundish  oblong,  white  or  greenish  yellow,  sweet, 
of  best  quality.  Possibly  the  same  as  Triumph,  Plate  XIII.  A 
variety  has  been  sold  under  this  name  which  seemed  to  be  the 
same  as  Chautauqua. 

Crown  Bob  (F). — A  variety  long  known  in  England  as  desirable 
either  for  home  use  or  market.  Bush  dwarfish,  but  vigorous  and 
productive.  Fruit  medium  to  large,  nearly  round,  dark  red,  nearly 
smooth,  almost  sweet,  of  good  quality,  similar  to  Industry  in  color, 
but  somewhat  smaller;  quite  subject  to  mildew. 

Crystal  (H). — Received  at  the  Geneva  (N.  Y.)  Experiment  Station 
from  J.  M.  Ogle,  of  Puyallup,  Wash.  Professor  Beach  says  l  that 
this  variety  appears  to  be  a  hybrid  between  the  European  goose- 
berry and  some  American  species,  possibly  Ribes  Cynosbati,  its  Euro- 
pean parentage  being  indicated  by  the  general  appearance  and  char- 
acter of  the  fruit,  which  is  pubescent,  like  the  European  varieties. 
Its  canes  are  tall  and  slender,  and  the  leaves  thin.  Very  productive, 
but  hardly  desirable,  owing  to  its  dull  green  color  and  poor  flavor. 
1  Geneva,  N.  Y.,  Expt.  Sta.  Bull.  114:16. 


Plate  XIII.     Gooseberries.     Chautauqua  above;  Columbus  below. 


The  Kinds  of  Gooseberries  323 

Dominion  (F). — Received  at  the  Geneva  (N.  Y.)  Experiment 
Station  from  E.  C.  Pierson  of  Waterloo,  N.  Y.  Described  as  vigorous 
and  promising.  Fruit  large,  pale  greenish  white. 

Downing  (H). — The  Great  American  gooseberry.  More  widely 
grown  and  more  generally  prized  than  any  other  sort.  Originated 
by  Charles  Downing  at  Newburg,  N.  Y.,  from  seed  of  the  Houghton. 
Pure  seedlings  of  this  variety  grown  at  the  Geneva  (N.  Y.)  Experi- 
ment Station,  while  not  generally  closely  resembling  the  parent,  seem, 
in  some  cases,  to  indicate  a  mixture  of  foreign  blood,  so  that  Professor 
Beach  is  led  to  consider  this  a  hybrid  between  the  American  and 
European  gooseberry.  Downing  describes  it  as  upright,  vigorous 
and  productive.  Fruit  somewhat  larger  than  Houghton,  roundish 
oval,  whitish  green,  with  the  rib-veins  distinct.  Skin  smooth;  flesh 
rather  soft,  juicy,  very  good.  Excellent  for  family  use.  It  has  seldom 
mildewed  in  the  United  States,  and  succeeds  over  a  wide  area. 
Houghton  is  said  to  be  sometimes  sold  for  this  variety  because  more 
easily  propagated.  The  fruit  must  be  picked  very  soon  after  reaching 
full  size,  for  it  ripens  quickly  and  becomes  too  soft  for  handling  or 
shipment.  In  quality  it  is  superior  to  the  European  varieties,  and 
surpassed  by  few,  if  any,  native  sorts. 

Duke  of  Sutherland  (F) . — Succeeds  in  New  York  State. 

Excellent  (F). — Promising  at  the  Geneva  (N.  Y.)  Experiment 
Station.  A  strong  grower,  somewhat  subject  to  mildew.  Fruit 
medium  to  large,  round  and  nearly  smooth,  light  red,  sweet,  very 
good. 

Excelsior. — Received  at  the  Geneva  (N.  Y.)  Experiment  Station 
from  J.  H.  Haynes,  of  Delphi,  Indiana,  with  whom  it  originated. 
A  strong  grower;  fruit  light  green,  roundish,  smooth. 

Freedom  (F). — A  promising  early  variety. 

Frontenac  (F). — Received  at  the  Geneva  (N.  Y.)  Experiment 
Station  from  H.  S.  Anderson,  of  Union  Springs,  N.  Y.  Fruit  large, 
oblong,  smooth,  pale  green,  sweet,  good. 

Gipsy  Queen  (F). — Late.     Succeeds  in  New  York. 

Golden  Prolific. — Moderately  vigorous;  foliage  rather  susceptible 
to  disease.  Fruit  very  large,  elongate,  yellowish  ground  color, 
washed  with  reddish  purple  on  exposed  cheek,  skin  very  thick  and 
tough,  flavor  poor  but  sweet  when  ripe. 


324  Bush-Fruits 

Gracilla  (F). — Mentioned  in  The  Rural  New-Yorker,  1897,  p.  646, 
as  a  promising  variety  of  the  English  type  received  from  L.  H. 
Hoysradt,  Pine  Plains,  N.  Y.,  in  the  spring  of  1895. 

Hale  Golden  (H).— Mentioned  in  The  Rural  New-Yorker,  1897, 
p.  646,  as  on  trial  at  the  Rural  grounds. 

Hedgehog  (Improved  Early)  (F). — A  vigorous  grower,  productive, 
comparatively  free  from  mildew.  Fruit  below  medium  size,  nearly 
round,  somewhat  hairy,  yellowish  green. 

Hobbs  Seedling. — Mentioned  by  Downing.  Thought  to  have  been 
originated  by  O.  J.  Hobbs,  of  Randolph,  Pa.  Described  as  light  pale 
green,  nearly  one-half  larger  than  Houghton. 

Houghton  (H). — Grown  from  seed  in  1833  by  Abel  Houghton,  of 
Lynn,  Mass.,  who  planted  Crown  Bob,  White  Smith,  White  Rock 
and  Red  Champion,  with  a  native  plant  from  the  woods  in  the  cen- 
ter. One  plant  only  was  saved,  the  Houghton.  This  was  the  first 
American  variety  introduced,  and  is  still  one  of  the  best  flavored, 
most  hardy  and  productive,  though  too  small.  It  is  generally  re- 
garded as  a  pure  native,  but  the  account  of  its  origin,  and  experi- 
ments made  at  Geneva,  N.  Y.,  by  growing  seedlings  from  two  of  its 
seedlings,  Smith  and  Downing,  indicate  that  it  is  a  hybrid  between 
the  American  and  European  species.  The  bush  is  rather  slender 
and  drooping  in  habit.  The  fruit  small,  handsome,  dark  red,  with 
a  whitish  bloom,  thin  skinned,  smooth,  juicy,  sweet,  and  of  excellent 
quality. 

Hudson. — Raised  by  Joseph  H.  Ricketts,  and  said  to  be  of  fine 
quality,  larger  than  Downing,  free  from  mildew.  Foliage  thick  and 
glossy.  Thought  to  be  an  American  or  a  cross-bred  variety.  Hard 
to  propagate. 

Huntsman. — Said  to  be  a  strong  grower,  and  apparently  produc- 
tive, comparatively  free  from  mildew.  Fruit  medium  to  large, 
oblong,  smooth,  pale  green,  sweet,  good. 

Industry  (Whinham's  Industry)  (F). — First  grown  by  Robert 
Wyndham  in  northern  England  early  in  the  nineteenth  century. 
Disseminated  in  this  country  by  Ellwanger  &  Barry,  about  1885. 
One  of  the  best  known  and  generally  successful  European  varieties. 
Vigorous,  productive,  somewhat  subject  to  mildew.  Fruit  medium 
to  large,  varying  from  pear  shape  to  roundish  oblong,  smooth,  or 


Plate  XIV.     Industry.     The  most  prominent  European-type  gooseberry 
in  the  United  States. 


The  Kinds  of  Gooseberries  325 

with  very  few  minute  prickles,  dark  red,  mild  subacid  or  sweet,  of 
good  flavor.  Said  to  be  very  hard  to  propagate  in  the  United  States. 
Plates  XI  and  XIV. 

Jewett. — Received  at  the  United  States  Division  of  Pomology  from 
George  H.  Andrews,  Clarkson,  N.  Y.  Found  in  a  pasture.  De- 
scribed as  large,  oblong,  whitish  green,  changing  to  blotched  and 
stippled  red.  Rep.  U.  S.  Pomologist  1894:  27. 

Jolly  Angler  (F). — Vigorous,  and  apparently  productive.  Fruit 
medium  to  large,  oblong  or  roundish  oblong,  smooth,  light  green, 
sweet,  good. 

Keepsake  (F). — A  strong  grower,  promising  to  be  productive,  some- 
what subject  to  mildew.  Fruit  medium  or  above,  nearly  round, 
smooth,  greenish  white,  sweet  or  nearly  so,  very  good. 

Lady  Popham  (F). — A  moderate  grower,  productive,  compara- 
tively free  from  mildew.  Fruit  medium  to  large,  oblong,  smooth, 
yellow,  very  sweet,  good.  A  good  variety  for  exhibition  purposes. 

Lancashire  Lad  (F). — A  strong  grower,  comparatively  free  from 
mildew.  Fruit  medium  to  large,  nearly  round,  dark  red,  almost 
wine  color,  slightly  hairy,  of  good  quality,  subacid  or  nearly  sweet. 

Leveller  (F). — A  moderate  grower,  mildewing  but  slightly,  and 
promising  to  be  productive.  Fruit  medium  to  large,  oblong,  smooth, 
yellowish,  slightly  acid,  good. 

Lord  Beaconsfield  (F). — A  good  grower,  promising  to  be  productive, 
somewhat  subject  to  mildew.  Fruit  below  medium  size,  nearly 
round,  green,  smooth,  sweet  and  good. 

Matchless  (F) . — A  strong  grower,  promising  to  be  productive,  mil- 
dewing but  slightly.  Fruit  large,  oblong,  green,  slightly  hairy, 
sweet,  very  good. 

May  Duke  (F). — One  of  the  successful  early  foreign  sorts  at  the 
Geneva,  N.  Y.,  Experiment  Station. 

Mountain  (H). — A  variety  which  originated  with  the  Shakers,  of 
Lebanon,  N.  Y.  Bush  tall  and  productive,  with  slender,  sprawling 
branches,  which  need  close  pruning.  Fruit  dull,  brownish  purple, 
somewhat  larger  than  Downing,  oblong,  smooth,  with  a  thick  skin, 
moderately  juicy  and  sweet.  Professor  S.  A.  Beach  says  a  that  this 
variety  is  of  special  interest,  as  being  the  only  known  representative 
1  Geneva  (N.  Y.)  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  114: 18. 


326  Bush-Fruits 

of  Ribes  Cynosbati  which  has  found  its  way  into  cultivation,  being 
clearly  a  hybrid  between  this  and  a  European  species.  The  long, 
slender,  solitary  spines,  the  tall  canes,  sprawling  branches,  dull  brown 
purplish  color  of  the  fruit,  and  the  very  dark  green  pulp  are  like 
Cynosbati,  as  are  also  the  beautiful  brown  and  red  color  of  its  autumn 
foliage  which  is  quite  unlike  the  yellow  or  occasional  brown  tints  of 
the  European  kinds.  The  fruit  is  very  large  for  an  American  variety, 
and  its  thick,  smooth  skin  indicates  foreign  parentage,  the  fruit  of 
Cynosbati  having  a  thin  skin  usually  beset  with  prickles.  The  glossy 
upper  surface,  and  somewhat  leathery  texture  of  the  foliage,  and 
comparative  short,  thick  buds  are  also  inherited  from  the  European 
parent,  Cynosbati  having  slender  buds,  with  soft,  pubescent  leaves, 
neither  leathery  nor  glossy. 

Newell  Seedling  (H). — A  variety  mentioned  in  the  Report  of  the 
Illinois  Horticulture  Society  for  1890,  p.  59,  as  on  exhibition  in  a 
preserving  solution.  Said  to  be  large,  of  fine  appearance,  hardy, 
and  free  from  mildew. 

Orange  (Engle's  Yellow?). — Said  to  ripen  seven  to  ten  days  earlier 
than  other  sorts.  Fruit  about  the  size  of  Houghton,  rich  golden 
yellow,  fine  flavored  and  very  sweet. 

Oregon  Jumbo  (H). — A  variety  offered  by  the  J.  T.  Lovett  Com- 
pany, of  New  Jersey,  and  described  as  "monstrous,  and  excelling 
all  others.  Superb  in  appearance  and  flavor.  Vigorous,  productive, 
hardy,  and  reliable.  Fruit  smooth,  pale  green,  of  high  quality." 

Pale  Red  (American  Red,  American  Seedling,  Robert's  Sweet- 
water,  Ohio  Seedling,  Dutch  Joe,  Ohio  Prolific,  St.  Clair  [Ameri- 
can] Cluster.) — A  variety  of  unknown  origin  which  has  long  been 
in  cultivation.  Frequently  known  as  Cluster  or  American  Cluster. 
It  appears  to  be  of  pure  Ribes  hirtellum  parentage.  The  bush  is  a 
strong  grower,  with  slender  wood,  very  productive.  Fruit  small 
or  medium,  darker  in  color  than  Houghton,  tender,  sweet  and  good. 
One  of  the  oldest  cultivated  varieties. 

Pearl  (H). — Originated  with  Professor  William  Saunders,  of  Lon- 
don, Ont.,  who  gives  its  parentage  as  Downing  crossed  with  an 
English  variety  known  as  Aston' s  Seedling,  which  is  apparently  a 
synonym  of  Red  Warrington.  The  variety  resembles  Downing  very 
closely,  both  in  bush  and  fruit. 


The  Kinds  of  Gooseberries  327 

Poorman. — Originated  along  about  1888  with  William  H.  Craig- 
head,  Brigham  City,  Utah;  introduced  by  D.  S.  Lohr,  Trementon, 
Utah,  in  1896.  Said  to  be  a  cross  between  Houghton  and  Downing, 
which  the  bush  and  fruit  indicate  to  be  true.  Plants  so  large  and 
vigorous  that  they  must  be  set  farther  apart  than  other  varieties; 
upright-spreading,  very  productive,  not  susceptible  to  mildew.  Fruit 
larger  than  either  parent,  measuring  over  an  inch  long  and  nearly 
an  inch  through,  oval,  pinkish  red  when  ripe,  quality  excellent. 
Considered  the  best  of  sixty-two  varieties  grown  at  the  Geneva, 
N.  Y.,  Experiment  Station. 

Portage  (F). — A  variety  received  at  the  United  States  Division  of 
Pomology  from  A.  H.  House,  Mantua  Station,  Ohio.  Described  in 
the  report  for  1891,  p.  395.  Also  described,  and  illustrated  by  a 
colored  plate,  in  the  report  for  1894.  Said  to  be  a  chance  seedling 
found  in  1874.  Fruit  solitary,  evenly  distributed,  large  to  very 
large,  oblong  oval;  surface  moderately  smooth,  dull,  slightly  downy, 
with  an  occasional  prickle.  Color  yellowish  green,  with  bronze  dots 
near  stem,  and  a  long  suture  on  some  specimens.  Flesh  translucent, 
greenish,  quite  firm ;  pulp  melting,  moderately  juicy.  A  good  shipper. 
Flavor  mild  subacid,  rich,  quality  good. 

Puyallup  (Puyallup  Mammoth)  (F). — The  original  bush  is  said  to 
have  been  dug  in  1881,  at  an  old  Indian  camp  on  the  bank  of  the 
Puyallup  River,  one  mile  below  the  town  of  that  name,  by  W.  M. 
Lee  and  his  wife,  of  Tacoma,  Wash.  Introduced  by  J.  M.  Ogle,  in 
1887.  Said  to  be  a  fairly  strong  grower,  rather  late  in  ripening. 
Fruit  large,  pale  green,  smooth,  sweet,  of  good  quality.  Mentioned 
in  the  Report  of  the  U.  S.  Pomologist  for  1891,  p.  395,  as  apparently 
identical  with  Triumph,  but  Professor  Beach  considers  this  an  error. 

Queen  of  the  Whites  (F). — A  strong  grower,  comparatively  free 
from  mildew.  Fruit  of  medium  size,  nearly  round,  smooth,  pale 
yellowish  green,  sweet,  good. 

Red  Champagne  (F). — A  strong  grower,  comparatively  free  from 
mildew.  Fruit  small  to  medium,  nearly  round,  slightly  hairy,  dark 
red,  sweet,  and  good.  This  variety  was  recommended  by  the  Amer- 
ican Pomological  Society  in  1850. 

Red  Jacket  (H). — A  variety  originated  many  years  ago  by  Pro- 
fessor William  Saunders,  of  London,  Ont.  Named  and  introduced 


328  Bush-Fruits 

by  George  S.  Josselyn,  of  Fredonia,  N.  Y.,  who  thinks  that  it  was 
a  seedling  of  Houghton  crossed  by  Red  Warrington.  It  is  a  strong 
grower,  productive,  and  a  good  shipper.  The  fruit  is  large,  roundish 
or  elongated,  reddish  green  shading  into  red,  smooth,  quite  trans- 
parent when  ripe;  skin  rather  tender.  Flesh  juicy,  rich,  fragrant,  of 
good  quality. 

Red  Jacket  (F). — An  English  variety,  entirely  distinct  from  the 
American  Red  Jacket.  Not  a  strong  grower,  but  promising  to  bo 
productive  and  comparatively  free  from  mildew.  Fruit  large  to 
very  large,  and  often  narrowed  toward  the  stem. 

Red  Warrington  (Aston  Seedling)  (F) . — A  strong  grower,  compara- 
tively free  from  mildew.  Fruit  medium  to  large,  oblong,  delicate 
pale  red,  hairy,  sweet,  of  best  quality.  Recommended  by  the  Amer- 
ican Pomological  Society  in  1850.  Also  mentioned  in  the  Horticul- 
turist, Vol.  II,  p.  341,  as  the  best  kind,  both  in  Canada  and  in  Eng- 
land. Said  to  ripen  late  and  to  hang  long  on  the  bushes  without 
injury. 

Smith  (H). — Originated  by  Dr.  Smith,  of  Windsor,  Vt.,  from  seed 
of  the  Houghton.  According  to  Professor  Beach,1  it  shows  indica- 
tions of  being  a  hybrid  between  the  American  and  European  species. 
Seedlings  of  Smith  crossed  with  Pale  Red,  which  is  thought  to  be  a 
pure  American  variety,  have  occasionally  shown  marked  European 
characteristics,  while  none  of  the  pure  seedlings  of  Pale  Red  have 
ever  given  such  indications.  It  is  described  as  vigorous,  with  some- 
what curving  canes  and  slender  branches.  Fruit  dull,  pale  green, 
sometimes  spotted  with  red,  and  having  a  light  bloom.  Skin  smooth, 
thin.  Pulp  sweet  and  good. 

Smiling  Beauty  (F). — A  good  grower.  Fruit  medium  to  large, 
nearly  round,  greenish  yellow,  sweet,  of  best  quality. 

Spineless  (F). — Recently  introduced  in  the  United  States,  by  C. 
H.  Joosten,  of  New  York  City.  It  is  figured  in  the  Gardener's 
Chronicle  for  July  27,  1895,  which  says:  "They  are  spineless  varieties 
obtained  from  seed.  The  first  spineless  gooseberry,  according  to  the 
Revue  Horticole,  1892:  180,  was  obtained  as  a  chance  seedling  by 
M.  Billard  about  1860.  About  1884,  M.  Ed.  Lefort  sowed  the  seeds 
of  this  variety,  from  which  he  obtained  a  race  of  spineless  varieties, 

114:19. 


The  Kinds  of  Gooseberries  329 

several  of  which  are  described  in  the  Revue  Horticole,  as  above  cited. 
The  variety  we  figure  is  a  dwarf  form,  very  productive,  and  with 
fruit  of  good  flavor.  It  is  the  form  described  and  figured  by  M. 
Carriere  and  Madame  Edouard  Lefort.  The  varieties  are  grafted 
upon  Ribes  aureum,  but  the  scions  soon  become  free." 

Stein  (H). — Mentioned  in  The  Rural  New-Yorker,  1897,  p.  646, 
as  "a  cross  between  Houghton  and  an  old  German  variety." 

Stockwell  (F). — A  moderate  grower.  Fruit  medium  to  large, 
oblong,  smooth,  light  green,  sweet,  good. 

Strubler  (H?). — Seedlings  originated  by  Phil.  Strubler,  of  Naper- 
ville,  111.,  have  been  sent  out  under  this  name,  with  different  numbers 
attached.  Nearly  all  of  them  are  seedlings  of  Downing  or  Smith. 
They  are  described  by  Professor  Beach,  in  Bull.  114  of  the  Geneva 
(N.  Y.)  Experiment  Station,  and  have  also  been  mentioned  in  reports 
of  the  United  States  Pomologist. 

Succeed  (F). — A  fair  grower,  promising  to  be  productive,  and  com- 
paratively free  from  mildew.  Fruit  medium  to  large,  oblong,  smooth, 
yellowish  green,  sweet,  good. 

Sulphur  (Early  Sulphur)  (F). — A  strong  grower,  comparatively 
free  from  mildew.  Fruit  of  medium  size,  round,  nearly  smooth,  fine 
yellow  color,  sweet,  good.  Placed  on  the  list  of  the  American  Porno- 
logical  Society  in  1850. 

Sunset  (F). — A  strong  grower,  comparatively  free  from  mildew. 
Fruit  medium  to  large,  oblong,  nearly  smooth,  yellowish  green, 
sweet,  of  best  quality. 

Tally  Ho  (F). — A  strong  grower,  comparatively  free  from  mildew. 
Fruit  medium  to  large,  pear-shaped,  pale  green,  nearly  smooth, 
sweet,  good. 

Thumper  (F). — A  moderate  grower,  promising  to  be  very  produc- 
tive. Fruit  medium  to  large,  oblong,  smooth,  light  green,  sweet,  good. 

Tree. — A  variety  mentioned  by  T.  T.  Lyon,  in  Mich.  Exp.  Sta. 
Bull.  118:  23,  as  apparently  a  native.  Vigorous,  healthy,  with  red 
fruit. 

Triumph  (F). — A  strong  grower,  comparatively  free  from  mildew, 
productive.  Fruit  large,  oblong  or  roundish,  pale  yellow,  sweet, 
smooth,  good.  This  variety  has  received  strong  commendation  from 
various  sources.  Mentioned  at  the  meeting  of  the  Western  New 


330  Bush-Fruits 

York  Horticultural  Society  in  1892,  as  very  promising,  a  stronger 
grower  than  Industry  and  equally  productive.  In  the  report  of 
the  American  Pomological  Society  for  1889,  p.  120,  E.  Williams 
says  that  it  is  a  great  improvement  on  any  other  variety  that  will 
grow  in  our  climate. 

Victoria. — Mentioned  in  the  Gardener's  Monthly  for  1870,  p.  156, 
as  a  small,  smooth  variety.  Thorns  not  numerous,  but  sharp,  inclined 
to  bend  over. 

Wellington  Glory  (F). — The  most  productive  European  gooseberry 
grown  at  the  Geneva  (N.  Y.)  Experiment  Station.  A  strong  grower, 
comparatively  free  from  mildew.  Fruit  attractive  in  appearance, 
medium  to  large,  oblong,  smooth,  with  slight  bloom,  pale  yellow, 
nearly  white,  sweet,  of  very  good  quality. 

White  Eagle  (F). — Bush  a  moderate  grower,  promising  to  be  pro- 
ductive. Fruit  medium  to  large,  oblong,  pear-shaped,  smooth, 
greenish  white,  sweet,  good.  This  variety  was  exhibited  before  the 
Pennsylvania  Horticultural  Society  in  1853. 

Whitesmith  (Woodward's)  (F). — A  strong  grower,  somewhat  sub- 
ject to  mildew,  productive.  Fruit  medium  to  large,  nearly  round. 

Gooseberry  varieties  in  foreign  lands  are  very  numerous. 
Lindley's  "Guide  to  the  Orchard/'  published  in  1830, 
enumerates  nearly  one  thousand  as  already  in  cultivation 
at  that  time.  Many  of  these  as  well  as  more  recent  in- 
troductions have  found  their  way  across  the  water  at  dif- 
ferent times,  usually  only  to  soon  disappear.  In  recent 
years  considerable  work  with  foreign  sorts  has  been  done 
at  the  Geneva,  New  York,  Experiment  Station.  With 
better  knowledge  of  how  to  control  mildew  some  of  them 
are  proving  valuable.  The  foreign  varieties  included  in 
the  foregoing  list  were  largely  chosen  from  those  men- 
tioned by  S.  A.  Beach  in  Bulletin  No.  114  of  that  Station. 

No  attempt  has  been  made  to  include  the  many  foreign 
varieties  mentioned  by  Downing  and  others  of  the  older 


Ornamental  Currants  and  Gooseberries       331 

writers,  nor  those  of  recent  days  which  have  attained  no 
prominence  in  American  horticulture. 

RECOMMENDED  VARIETIES   OF  GOOSEBERRIES 

The  Downing  is  undoubtedly  still  the  leading  com- 
mercial gooseberry  in  the  United  States,  though  too  small 
to  be  entirely  satisfactory.  In  the  foreign  class  Industry 
is  best  known  and  probably  most  generally  successful. 
Among  the  newer  sorts  which  are  attaining  prominence, 
Chautauqua,  American  Red  Jacket  and  Poorman  are 
worthy  of  especial  mention. 

ORNAMENTAL   CURRANTS   AND   GOOSEBERRIES 

The  best  known  species  in  this  role  is  the  flowering  cur- 
rant, Ribes  odoratum  (Fig.  46),  commonly  known  as  R. 
aureum,  so  common  in  eastern  gardens.  This  is  a  most 
attractive  plant  early  in  spring.  It  forms  a  graceful,  droop- 
ing shrub,  well  adapted  to  masses  or  groups.  In  the  early 
months  of  summer  few  plants  are  more  attractive  than  this, 
regardless  of  its  bloom,  for  its  foliage  is  bright  and  glossy, 
and  the  form  of  the  plant  perfect.  Yet  before  the  middle 
of  August  its  leaves  are  mostly  gone.  Were  it  not  for 
this  defect,  few  plants  would  deserve  a  higher  rank  for 
ornament. 

The  most  showy  plant  of  the  genus  is  the  fuchsia- 
flowered  gooseberry,  Ribes  speciosum,  of  the  Pacific  coast 
(Fig.  47).  Its  flowers  are  long,  bright  red  and  handsome, 
and  its  foliage  small,  firm  and  glossy.  It  is  a  good  plant 
for  ornament,  but  is  not  hardy  in  the  northern  states. 

A  plant  which  has  received  much  more  attention  for  its 
flowering  qualities  is  the  red-flowered  currant,  Ribes 


Fig.  46.  Ribes  odoratum  (X1/2)- 


Fig.  48.  Ribes  Lobbii. 


Fig.  47.  Ribes  speciosum  (XVs). 


Ornamental  Currants  and  Gooseberries        333 

sanguineum.  It  has  been  frequently  grown  both  in  the 
United  States  and  in  Europe,  and  seems  to  be  everywhere 
prized.  The  flowers  are  rose-colored  or  reddish  purple, 
borne  in  long,  leafless  racemes  and  produced  in  great  pro- 
fusion. Unfortunately,  it  is  not  entirely  hardy  in  the 
northern  states,  needing  some  protection,  which  the 
beauty  of  its  bloom  will  well  repay. 

A  hardier  plant  is  the  hybrid  between  the  preceding 
species  and  Ribes  odoratum,  which  is  commonly  known 
under  the  name  Ribes  Gordonianum.  This  is  not  so  hardy 
as  Ribes  odoratum,  but  will  stand  more  exposure  than 
Ribes  sanguineum.  It  is  intermediate  in  character  be- 
tween the  two  parents,  resembling  R.  sanguineum  in  shape 
of  flower,  though  the  flowers  are  lighter  in  color  and  nearly 
odorless,  while  the  character  of  bush  is  more  like  R.  odora- 
tum. Although  not  a  common  plant,  it  has  been  well 
known,  both  here  and  abroad,  and  frequently  mentioned 
in  horticultural  literature. 

Several  species  of  the  Menziesii  group  have  large,  attrac- 
tive flowers,  particularly  R.  amictum,  and  R.  californicum; 
also,  R.  Lobbii.  (Fig.  48.)  R.  alpinum  and  R.  fasciculatum 
have  ornamental  scarlet  fruits,  those  of  the  latter  species 
ripening  in  September  and  remaining  on  the  plants  during 
winter.  They  are  recommended  for  borders  of  shrubberies 
and  the  trailing  kinds  for  slopes.  R.  alpinum  is  said  to  be 
excellent  for  shady  places.  R.  alpestre,  a  strong-growing 
and  very  spiny  gooseberry  from  China  is  suggested  as  a 
possible  hedge-plant  of  value. 

For  a  full  account  of  the  botany  of  the  cultivated  and 
American  species  of  Ribes,  the  reader  is  referred  to  the 
Standard  Cyclopedia  of  Horticulture. 


CHAPTER  XV 

INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  THE  GROSELLES 

\ 

THE  groselles  like  other  economic  plants,  are  subject  to 
attack  from  insects  of  divers  character,  appearance,  and 
habits.  The  list  immediately  following  comprises  those 
most  likely  to  work  serious  injury. 

THE   FOUR-LINED   LEAF-BUG 

Pcecilocapsus  lineatus,  Fabr. 

This  is  a  native  insect  which  was  first  described  by  Fabricius 
in  1798.  It  came  into  notice  as  injurious  to  dahlias,  currants  and 
other  plants  soon  after  the  middle  of  the  present  century,  and  has 
never  ceased  its  evil  ways  from  that  day  to  this.  Its  food  plants 
embrace  esculent  and  ornamental  plants  and  a  few  weeds. 

The  insect  appears  about  the  middle  of  May  in  northern  latitudes, 
and  takes  up  its  abode  on  the  tenderest  leaves  at  the  tip  of  the 
twigs.  It  is  then  too  small  to  be  readily  seen,  but  by  means  of  its 
proboscis,  a  perpetual  self-acting  pump,  it  immediately  begins  to 
drain  the  leaf  of  its  sap.  At  first  its  work  is  not  conspicuous,  but 
soon  becomes  manifest  by  the  appearance  of  small,  dark  spots, 
which  later  turn  brown  and  die,  the  soft  part  of  the  leaf  within 
having  been  sucked  out.  These  spots,  which  at  first  are  not  larger 
than  the  head  of  a  pin,  may  become  much  larger  and  even  run  to- 
gether, causing  the  death  of  the  entire  leaf.  The  shoot  itself  may  be 
checked  in  growth,  or  even  killed. 

The  work  of  this  insect,  contrasted  with  that  of  leaf-spot  and 
anthracnose  fungi  is  shown  at  Plate  XV,  together  with  egg-clusters 
on  a  currant  stem. 

The  nymphs,  or  immature  forms  of  the  insect,  are  at  first  very 

334 


Leaf -spot  of  red  currant. — Septoria 
ribis.  Courtesy  of  Geneva,  N.  YM 
Experiment  Station. 


Anthracnose  of  red  currant . 


Injury  by  four-lined  leaf -bug  on  a  goose- 
berry leaf.  After  Slingerland  and  Crosby. 


Egg-clusters     of    four-lined 
leaf-bug  on  stem  of  currant. 


Plate  XV.  Afflictions  of  currants  and  gooseberries. 


The  Currant  Plant-louse  335 

small,  but  easily  recognized  by  the  shining  vermilion-red  color  oi 
the  body,  marked  by  blackish  spots  on  the  thorax.  The  mature 
insect  is  a  bright  orange-yellow  colored  bug,  three-tenths  of  an 
inch  long,  with  four  black  stripes  extending  down  the  back. 

The  eggs  are  laid  in  clusters  in  slits  near  the  tips  of  twigs  of  the 
present  year's  growth  of  currants,  gooseberries,  and  other  shrubs. 
They  are  deposited  late  in  June,  and  remain  in  this  position  until 
the  nymphs  hatch  the  following  spring.  These  undergo  five  moults 
before  reaching  the  adult  form.  The  adults  disappear  early  in  July, 
there  being  but  one  brood  a  year. 

Remedies. — Since  the  insect  feeds  by  sucking  the  sap  of  the  plant 
from  the  inner  tissues  of  the  leaf,  the  application  of  poisons  like  Paris 
green  can  do  no  good.  Kerosene  emulsion,  diluted  with  not  more 
than  five  parts  of  water,  if  very  thoroughly  applied  while  the  insects 
are  still  young,  will  prove  effective.  The  egg  clusters  are  not  diffi- 
cult to  find,  and  since  they  remain  over  winter,  trimming  off  and 
burning  five  or  six  inches  of  infested  twigs  is  a  practicable  remedy, 
at  least  on  a  small  scale. 
Reference. 

Cornell  Univ.  Expt.  Sta.  Bull.  58. 

THE   CURRANT  PLANT-LOUSE 

Mysus  ribis,  Linn. 

This  is  a  small,  yellowish  plant-louse,  appearing  on  the  under  side 
of  currant  leaves,  causing  them  to  curl  and  present  a  blistered  and 
generally  reddish  appearance  on  the  upper  surface.  The  shining 
black,  cucumber-shaped  eggs  are  attached  to  the  bark  of  the  new 
growth  and  hatch  soon  after  the  leaves  open.  The  lice  hatched 
from  these  eggs  are  all  females  and  are  called  stem-mothers.  When 
mature  they  give  birth  to  living  young.  These  in  turn,  and  through- 
out the  summer,  are  all  females  and  are  born  alive.  Until  food  be- 
comes scarce  nearly  all  are  wingless,  after  which  winged  females  are 
produced  which  migrate  to  other  feeding  grounds.  As  the  lice  become 
abundant  they  often  cover  the  entire  under  side  of  the  leaves,  causing 
them  to  become  very  much  curled  and  distorted.  These  leaves  may 
fall  later,  preventing  the  fruit  from  ripening  as  it  should.  The  fruit 


336  Bush-Fruits 

may  also  be  injured  in  appearance  at  least,  by  a  black  fungus  which 
grows  on  the  honey-dew  secreted  by  the  lice. 

As  the  season  advances  the  lice  tend  to  disappear  as  a  result  of 
the  attacks  of  their  predaceous  and  parasitic  enemies.  Those  which 
survive  give  birth  to  true  males  and  females  at  the  approach  of  cold 
weather.  The  females  deposit  shining  black,  cucumber-shaped  eggs, 
which  winter  over,  on  twigs  toward  the  end  of  October. 

Control. — Plant-lice  are  easily  killed  by  contact  insecticides,  such 
as  kerosene  emulsion,  soap  solutions  or  tobacco  extracts,  if  they  can 
be  reached.  The  trouble  is  that  the  curled  leaves  protect  them 
from  the  spray.  Success  depends  on  applying  the  remedy  thoroughly 
and  promptly,  before  the  leaves  become  much  curled.  In  the  home- 
garden  handpicking  may  be  simpler. 
Reference. 

Geneva,  N.  Y.,  Expt.  Sta.  Bull.  139. 

THE   SAN  JOSE   SCALE 

Aspidiosus  pernidosus,  Comstock 

Although  better  known  as  an  orchard  insect,  the  San  Jose  scale  is 
frequently  found  on  currant  and  gooseberry.  It  is  supposed  to  be  a 
native  of  China,  becoming  first  known  in  the  United  States  at  San 
Jose,  California,  about  1870.  It  was  first  discovered  in  the  East  in 
Virginia  in  1893,  but  later  observations  indicate  that  it  was  at  that 
time  already  widely  spread  throughout  the  eastern  states.  It  was 
first  described  by  Professor  Comstock  in  1880.  Since  that  time  more 
literature  and  legislation  have  been  brought  against  it  than  toward 
any  other  plant  enemy  known  to  man.  The  insect  is  a  near  relative 
of  the  oyster-shell  bark-louse.  It  appears  on  the  plant  or  fruit  as  a 
round,  gray  scale  about  the  size  of  the  head  of  an  ordinary  pin. 
In  the  center  is  a  dark  nipple,  surrounded  by  a  yellowish  ring.  These 
are  the  larger  scales  which  cover  the  full-grown  females.  The  smaller 
scales  are  nearly  black,  with  a  central  gray  dot  surrounded  by  a  black 
depressed  ring,  bordered  by  a  grayish  ring.  These  smaller  scales 
are  thought  to  be  the  only  ones  which  live  over  winter.  The  young 
are  tiny,  bright  yellow  little  insects  having  six  legs  and  able  to  crawl 
about  readily.  They  soon  find  a  place  to  suit  their  fancy,  settle 


The  Gooseberry  Fruit-worm  337 

down  and  insert  their  long  mouthparts  into  the  branch  or  fruit  and 
begin  sucking  the  juices  from  within.  In  a  short  time  thereafter 
they  become  covered  with  the  protecting  scales  described  above. 
A  single  mother  is  supposed  to  produce  from  100  to  200  young  during 
her  lif  etime  under  average  conditions,  even  600  being  possible.  This 
enormous  increase,  together  with  the  fact  that  being  so  securely 
attached  to  the  part  on  which  it  lives  it  is  so  readily  distributed  on 
nursery  stock,  and  the  like,  accounts  for  its  widespread  distribution 
and  the  difficulty  with  which  it  is  controlled. 

It  is  preyed  upon  by  numerous  parasites,  some  of  which  have 
been  heralded  as  avenging  enemies  which  would  free  us  from  the 
destruction  caused  by  this  pest.  They  doubtless  aid,  but  the  factors 
are  too  complex  to  afford  any  great  hope  for  relief  along  this  line. 

Remedies. — The  San  Jose  scale  is  not  hard  to  kill  if  it  can  be  hit. 
The  chief  trouble  comes  from  the  fact  that  it  is  so  small  and  so 
easily  missed  that  it  is  practically  impossible  to  reach  all  the  in- 
sects on  the  tree  or  plant.  Then  those  which  are  left  are  able  to 
multiply  so  rapidly  that  the  tree  is  soon  covered  again. 

Lime-sulfur,  in  some  of  its  forms  has  proved  the  most  dependable 
and  all-round  satisfactory  spray.  The  oil  sprays  are  more  agreeable 
to  use  and  spread  over  the  plant  better,  so  that  insects  are  less  likely 
to  be  missed,  but  unless  conditions  are  right  in  every  way  often  injure 
the  trees  or  plants.  Thorough  work  is  essential,  whatever  the  remedy 
applied. 

So  much  has  been  written  regarding  this  insect  and  its  control  that 
no  attempt  is  made  to  cite  references.  A  full  account  will  be  found 
in  U.  S.  Bur.  Ent.  Bull.  62. 

THE   GOOSEBERRY   FRUIT-WORM 

Zophodia  grossularice,  Pack. 

The  larva  of  this  moth  works  within  the  fruit  of  the  gooseberry, 
and  sometimes  of  the  currant.  The  moths  appear  early  in  spring 
and  deposit  their  eggs  on  the  surface  of  the  very  young  fruit.  The 
larva  bores  into  the  fruit  and  eats  out  its  contents.  When  one 
berry  is  disposed  of  another  is  fastened  to  the  now  empty  shell,  and 
the  worm  bores  its  way  into  that  one.  Several  fruits  may  be  thus 


338  Bush-Fruits 

destroyed.  The  larva  commonly  reaches  maturity  by  the  first  of 
July,  when  it  is  a  pale  green  caterpillar,  about  three-fourths  of  an 
inch  long,  with  a  small,  pale  brown,  horny  looking  head.  It  then 
descends  to  the  ground  and  spins  a  thin  cocoon  among  fallen  leaves 
and  rubbish,  within  which  it  changes  to  a  chrysalis,  remaining  in 
this  condition  until  the  following  spring. 

Remedies. — Infested  berries  color  prematurely,  and  can  be  hand- 
picked,  taking  care  that  the  very  active  worms  do  not  quickly  leave 
the  fruit.    If  chickens  are  allowed  in  the  field  after  fruiting  time,  they 
will  consume  many  of  the  chrysalids. 
References. 

Riley,  Mo.  Repts.  1:140. 

Saunders,  Kept.  Ent.  Soc.  Ontario,  7:39. 


THE  IMPORTED  CURRANT  BORER 

Sesia  tipuliformis,  Clerck 

This  is  a  slender,  rapid-flying,  wasp-like,  dark  blue  moth,  half 
an  inch  long  and  three-fourths  of  an  inch  broad,  having  three  yellow 
bands  across  the  body  and  a  yellow  collar.  It  appears  toward  the 
end  of  May  or  the  first  of  June,  and  deposits  its  eggs  upon  the  stems 
near  a  bud.  When  hatched  the  larva  eats  its  way  directly  to  the 
center,  thence  upward  and  downward  in  the  pith.  Here  it  remains 
until  the  following  year,  meanwhile  eating  out  a  tunnel  from  six 
to  twelve  niches  in  length.  When  full  grown,  the  larva  is  about 
half  an  inch  long,  white,  with  a  brown  head  and  a  few  hairs  scattered 
over  its  body.  Like  many  other  immigrants  in  the  insect  world, 
this  species  appears  to  prosecute  its  work  with  renewed  energy  in 
the  home  of  its  adoption,  far  outstripping  the  native  currant  borer 
in  the  success  of  its  undertakings.  It  prefers  the  red  currant,  but 
it  is  not  too  fastidious  to  accept  the  black  currant  or  gooseberry  as  a 
substitute  when  occasion  demands. 

Remedies. — The  method  of  treatment,  which  is  the  same  for  all 
species  of  borers  attacking  these  plants,  consists  in  pruning  away 
and  burning  all  infested  canes,  late  in  winter  or  early  in  spring, 
before  the  moths  emerge.  With  several  canes  allowed  to  grow,  and 


The  Gooseberry  Span-worm  339 

all  wood  cut  away  after  it  has  borne  one  or  two  crops,  this  result  will 

be  accomplished  with  little  extra  trouble. 

References. 

Cook,  Mich.  Hort.  Soc.  Rep.  1890: 106. 

Colo.  Expt.  Sta.  Bull.  19:  21. 

Vt.  Expt.  Sta.  Kept.  1894: 130. 

Wash.  Expt.  Sta.  Bull.  36: 14. 

THE   GOOSEBERRY  SPAN-WORM 

Cymatophora  riberearia,  Fitch 

This  is  the  larva  of  a  native  pale  yellowish  moth,  marked  with 
several  dusky  spots,  and  measuring  about  an  inch  and  a  quarter 
across.  The  larva  when  full  grown  is  about  an  inch  long,  of  a  whit- 
ish color,  with  broad  yellow  stripes  running  down  the  back  and 
sides,  and  with  a  number  of  black  spots  on  each  segment.  It  is  a 
"measuring  worm,"  moving  by  arching  its  body  in  the  center. 
When  disturbed,  it  drops  from  the  leaf  and  remains  suspended  in 
the  air  by  a  web.  It  is  most  commonly  found  upon  the  gooseberry 
or  black  currant,  appearing  soon  after  the  leaves  expand  and  feeding 
upon  them.  It  attains  its  full  growth  within  three  or  four  weeks, 
descends  to  the  ground  and  transforms  to  a  pupa,  hidden  by  rubbish, 
or  just  beneath  the  surface  of  the  ground.  The  moth  emerges 
about  two  weeks  later.  The  beautifully  sculptured  eggs  are  laid 
singly  on  the  twigs,  which  they  resemble  in  color,  and  are  therefore 
hard  to  detect.  Here  they  remain  until  spring,  there  being  but  one 
brood  a  year.  It  thus  happens  that  the  sale  of  plants  affords  a  ready 
means  for  the  spread  of  the  insect. 

Remedies. — This  is  commonly  not  a  serious  enemy,  but  when  it 
does  become  numerous,  is  more  difficult  to  destroy  than  the  or- 
dinary currant  worm.  Hellebore  is  not  effective.  Arsenate  of  lead 
at  the  rate  of  two  pounds  to  fifty  gallons  of  water  will  give  good 
results  when  the  worms  are  small.  When  full-grown  they  are  not 
easily  poisoned.  Paris  green,  using  one-fourth  as  much,  may  replace 
the  lead  arsenate,  but  the  latter  sticks  to  leaves  better. 
References. 

Fitch,  Kept.  N.  Y.  State  Ent.  3:  427. 

Riley,  Mo.  Kept.  9:3. 


340  Bush-Fruits 

THE    GOOSEBERRY   MIDGE 

Dasyneura  grossulariae,  Fitch 

This  insect  is  a  small,  yellowish  fly,  with  black  eyes,  scarcely  one- 
tenth  of  an  inch  long,  resembling  a  mosquito  in  form.  The  eggs, 
which  are  deposited  beneath  the  skin  of  the  young  fruit,  hatch  and 
develop  into  small,  bright  yellow,  oval  maggots,  resembling  those 
of  the  wheat  midge.  These  change  to  pupae  within  the  fruit,  and 
emerge  as  perfect  flies  in  midsummer.  Further  than  this  the  life 
history  seems  to  be  unknown.  Their  presence  causes  the  fruit  to 
turn  prematurely  red  and  become  soft  and  putrid  within. 

Remedies. — The  only  remedy  thus  far  known  to  be  effective  is  to 
pick  and  destroy  all  fruit  which  turns  prematurely. 
Reference. 

Fitch,  Kept.  N.  Y.  State  Ent.  1: 176. 

THE   YELLOW   CURRANT  FRUIT-FLY 

Epochra  canadensis,  Loew 

This  insect  is  a  yellow  or  orange-colored  fly,  about  the  size  of 
the  common  house-fly,  with  greenish  iridescent  eyes  and  smoky 
patches  or  bands  across  its  wings.  It  punctures  the  skin  of  the 
young  currant  or  gooseberry,  depositing  its  egg  just  beneath.  This 
soon  develops  into  a  small  white  grub  which  measures  about  one- 
third  of  an  inch  in  length.  Its  presence  causes  the  fruit  to  turn 
red  and  fall  to  the  ground  prematurely.  After  becoming  full  grown, 
the  maggots  leave  the  fruit  and  enter  the  ground,  where  they  change 
to  pupae,  emerging  as  perfect  flies  early  the  following  summer. 

This  insect  is  most  troublesome  in  the  West,  especially  in  the 
Mountain  region,  where  wild  groselles  are  abundant  and  afford 
breeding-grounds  for  it.  In  Colorado  it  is  considered  the  worst 
enemy  of  these  fruits. 

Remedies. — No  very  practicable  remedy  seems  yet  to  have  been 
found.  The  insect  spends  about  eleven  months  of  the  year  safely 
buried  in  the  ground.  No  way  of  destroying  the  mature  flies  seems 
feasible,  and  the  egg  is  deposited  beneath  the  skin  of  the  fruit  be- 
yond the  reach  of  insecticides.  Part  of  the  infested  fruit  drops  pre- 


The  American  Currant  Borer  341 

maturely  and  the  larvae  remain  in  it  for  a  time.  Not  all  the  insects 
fall  with  the  fruit,  some  escaping  before  it  drops.  Yet  allowing 
chickens  among  the  bushes  until  picking  time  and  again  thereafter, 
has  been  thought  to  help.  The  pupse  transform  within  an  inch  of  the 
surface.  Frequent  cultivation  may  therefore  destroy  some. 
References. 

Maine  Expt.  Sta.  Rept.  1895:  111. 

Colo.  Expt.  Sta.  Bull.  19: 18. 

Paine,  Psyche,  19:  139. 

DARK   CURRANT   FRUIT-FLY 

In  the  Pacific  Northwest  a  closely  related  species,  Rhagoletis 
ribicola,  Doane,  termed  the  dark  currant  fruit-fly,  attacks  the  fruit 
of  both  currants  and  gooseberries.  Its  life  history  and  habits  are 
much  the  same  as  the  above  and  it  must  be  combated  in  the  same 
way. 
Reference. 

Wash.  Expt.  Sta.  Bull.  36:  3. 

THE  AMERICAN  CURRANT  BORER 

Psenocerus  supernotatus,  Say 

This  insect,  though  very  similar  in  its  habits  to  the  imported 
currant  borer,  belongs  to  an  entirely  different  order.  When  ma- 
ture, instead  of  being  a  moth,  it  is  a  small,  narrow,  brownish  beetle, 
nearly  cylindrical,  and  varying  in  length  from  one-eighth  to  one- 
fourth  of  an  inch.  The  larva  is  a  small,  white,  round  and  wrinkled 
grub  without  feet.  The  life  history  is  practically  the  same  as  that 
of  the  imported  insect,  and  larvae  of  both  are  sometimes  found  to- 
gether in  the  same  stalk. 

The  food  habits  of  this  insect  are  peculiar  in  that  it  seems  to  prefer 
working  in  canes  which  are  attacked  by  the  currant  cane-blight, 
Botryosphceria  Ribis,  feeding  upon  the  spores  and  growing  parts  of 
the  fungus  itself.  The  beetles  are  often  found  abundantly  in  late 
May  and  early  June,  both  in  the  field  and  in  material  which  has 
been  collected  and  brought  inside.  The  larval  and  pupal  stages 


342 


Bush-Fruits 


are  passed  in  stems  which  have  been  killed  by  this  disease,  but  the 
place  of  egg-laying  is  in  doubt. 

Remedies. — Cutting  out  and  burning  infested  stalks  will  prove 
effective. 
References. 

Fitch,  N.Y.  Rep.  3:416. 

Cook,  Rep.  Mich.  Hort.  Soc.  1890: 106. 

Geneva,  N.  Y.,  Expt.  Sta.  Tech.  Bull.  18. 

THE  IMPORTED  CURRANT  WORM 

Pteronus  ribesii,  Scopoli 

This  most  familiar  inhabitant  of  the  currant  and  gooseberry 
bushes  is  a  four-winged  saw-fly,  about  the  size  of  the  common  house 
fly.  It  first  appeared  in  the  United  States  in  the  vicinity  of  Roches- 
ter, N.  Y.,  about  1857, 
being  mentioned  in  "The 
Rural  New-Yorker"  of 
July  24,  1858,  p.  239. 
The  male  is  black,  with 
some  yellow  spots,  glossy 
wings  and  yellow  legs. 
The  female  is  larger  than 
the  male,  bright  honey 
yellow,  with  a  black  head. 
It  is  not  in  this  dress, 
however,  that  we  best 
know  the  insect.  Its  eggs 
are  deposited  in  rows  on 
the  under  side  of  the  leaves,  along  the  principal  veins  (Fig.  49),  in 
early  spring.  Dr.  Lintner  observed  a  female  deposit  thirty  eggs  on 
a  single  currant  leaf  within  one  hour.  These  hatch  in  a  few  days, 
and  open  the  season's  campaign  by  eating  small  holes  in  the  leaf. 
The  eggs  are  laid  in  rows,  and  the  young  larvae  at  first  feed  in  com- 
panies (Fig.  50),  but  later,  as  size  and  appetite  increase,  they  scatter 
to  all  parts  of  the  bush. 

The  insect  is  fastidious  in  its  dress  during  the  larval  stage.    It  first 
appears  in  a  modest  garb  of  dull  white,  which  it  soon  exchanges  for 


Fig.  49.  Eggs  of  the  imported  currant  worm. 


The  Imported  Currant  Worm 


343 


green,  to  which  many  black  spots  are  added  later,  these  in  turn 
giving  place  to  a  plain  green  tinged  with  yellow,  as  it  approaches  ma- 
turity. When  full  grown,  it  measures  about  three-quarters  of  an 
inch  in  length.  It  then  forms  a  silken  cocoon,  hidden  by  rubbish 
on  the  ground,  just  beneath  the  surface,  or  occasionally  attached  to 
stems  and  leaves  above  ground.  The  winged  insect  emerges  the  last 
of  June  or  first  of  July,  to  re- 
peat the  same  cycle,  there  be- 
ing two  broods  a  year,  the  last 
one  passing  the  winter  in  the 
cocoon  in  the  larva  or  pupa 
stage.  The  separate  broods 
do  not  emerge  all  at  once, 
hence  there  is  a  practical 
continuation  of  hostilities 
throughout  the  season. 

Remedies. — A  history  of  the 
remedies  which  have  been  em- 
ployed against  this  insect  since 
its  advent  in  this  country 
would  afford  spicy  reading, 
with  no  lack  of  variety.  It  is 
interesting  to  note  that  the  use 
of  kerosene  emulsion  seems  to 
have  had  its  beginning  in 
fighting  this  insect,  about 
1870. l  The  following  brief 
mention  will  show  something  of  the  range  of  ammunition  brought 
into  play  against  this  enemy.  Salt  and  water,  Gardener's  Monthly, 
1881: 17.  Tobacco  water,  Ibid,  1881:  241.  Sulphur  sprinkled  on  the 
bushes  when  wet,  Ibid,  1882:  148.  Smudge  with  burning  leather  and 
sulphur  under  the  bushes,  Ibid,  1862:  213.  Red  currants  untouched  if 
black  currants  are  planted  among  them,  Tilton's  Journal,  8: 35. 
Copperas  dissolved  in  water,  Ibid,  8:  23.  Carbolate  of  lime,  Ibid, 

Hilton's  Journal,  8:23,  176-9:213.    Gardener's  Monthly,  1874: 
149. 


Fig.   50.   Early  work  of  the  currant 
worm. 


344  Bush-Fruits 

9: 149.  Tansy  decoction,  Ibid,  9:246.  Wood  ashes  applied  when 
leaves  are  wet,  Ibid,  9:309;  also  "Rural  New-Yorker,"  1897:375. 
Carbolic  acid,  Horticulturist,  1870:  221.  Picking  off  leaves  at  base 
of  bushes  where  most  eggs  are  deposited  before  they  hatch,  or  imme- 
diately after.  Coal  tar  dissolved  in  turpentine,  with  slaked  lime  and 
water  added,  Ibid,  1870:  222.  Knocking  off  the  worms  to  let  them 
fall  on  the  hot  ground  when  the  sun  is  bright,  Ibid,  1871 :  159.  Howe 
Cave  fertilizer,  Graf  ton  mineral  fertilizer  and  Colburn's  currant- 
worm  exterminator  mentioned  as  ineffectual,  Ibid,  1873 : 172.  Mixing 
wood  ashes  with  the  soil,  Ibid,  1873: 192.  Mulching  with  tobacco 
stems,  "Popular  Gardening,"  2:  129.  Mulching  with  coal  ashes, 
Ibid,  6:220.  Air-slaked  lime  and  tobacco  dust,  Insect  Life,  1:  17. 
Alum,  Ibid,  1:  229.  Decoction  of  foxglove,  Gar.  Month.,  1874:  254. 
Soot,  also  rue  and  chamomile  planted  among  the  bushes,  Tilton's 
Jour.,  4:  233.  Decoction  of  elder  leaves  and  tobacco  water,  Ibid, 
7: 187.  Young  chickens,  Hovey's  Mag.,  1854:  527. 

In  1869,  the  Massachusetts  Horticultural  Society  offered  a  prize 
of  twenty-five  dollars  for  "a  safe,  certain  and  economical  method, 
better  than  any  now  known,  of  destroying  the  currant  worm,  or 
preventing  its  ravages." 

The  most  effective  treatment  is  spraying  with  arsenate  of  lead  at 
the  rate  of  about  two  ounces  to  three  gallons  of  water  (two  pounds 
to  fifty  gallons).  One-fourth  the  amount  of  paris  green  may  be 
used  instead  if  necessary.  This  spraying  should  be  done  early, 
while  the  worms  are  still  on  the  lower  leaves.  If  neglected  until 
the  fruit  has  developed  so  as  to  make  arsenites  unsafe,  hellebore 
at  the  rate  of  about  a  tablespoonful,  an  ounce  or  more,  to  the  gallon 
of  water,  must  be  substituted.  This  may  also  be  used  dry,  at  the 
rate  of  one  pound  to  five  pounds  of  air-slaked  lime. 

Allowing  the  bushes  to  be  defoliated,  even  after  the  fruit  is  off, 
injures  the  crop  of  the  following  year. 
Reference. 

Marlatt,  Revis.  Nematinae  of  North  Amer.,  61. 


The  Currant  Stem-girdkr  345 

THE   GREEN   CURRANT  WORM 

Gymnonychus  appendiculatus,  Hartig 

This  insect  has  been  commonly  known  as  the  native  currant  worm, 
but  it  too  seems  to  have  been  imported  from  Europe,  hence  that 
name  should  be  abandoned.  It  is  widely  distributed  and  sometimes 
does  noticeable  damage  in  the  West,  but  is  seldom  destructive  in 
the  East.  It  is  somewhat  closely  related  to  the  common  currant 
worm  but  the  flies  are  smaller  in  size,  and  both  sexes  are  black.  The 
flies  appear  in  spring  as  the  leaves  are  unfolding,  and  the  eggs  are 
laid  in  the  edge  of  the  leaf  between  the  two  layers.  The  worms  are 
solid  green  in  color,  with  blackish  heads,  never  having  black  spots 
like  the  preceding  species.  They  do  not  feed  in  groups.  They  reach 
full  size  in  about  five  days,  spin  small  brownish  cocoons  underneath 
trash  or  just  below  the  surface,  and  emerge  as  perfect  flies  in  about 
a  week.  There  may  be  four  or  five  broods  in  middle  latitudes,  each 
requiring  about  twenty-five  days  from  egg  to  adult. 

Treatment. — The  same  methods  employed  in  fighting  the  common 
currant  worm  may  be  used  against  this  one. 
References. 

Walsh,  Pract.  Ent.  1:123. 

Riley,  Mo.  Kept.  9:23. 

Saunders,  Kept.  Ent.  Soc.  Ont.  f.,  1871: 34. 

THE   CURRANT  STEM-GIRDLER 

Janus  integer,  Norton 

This,  too,  is  a  native  saw-fly,  but  the  larvae,  instead  of  feeding 
on  the  leaves,  like  the  others,  burrow  in  the  pith  of  the  currant 
stems.  The  egg  is  laid  within  the  pith  of  the  young  shoots  a  few 
inches  from  the  tips.  After  depositing  the  egg  the  female  fly  moves 
upward  and  proceeds  to  girdle  the  stem  at  a  point  from  half  an  inch 
to  an  inch  above  where  the  egg  was  placed.  The  cane  may  be  en- 
tirely severed  by  this  girdling,  or  may  still  cling  by  a  small  portion, 
but  quickly  wilts,  and  generally  soon  falls  away.  The  larva,  which 
is  nearly  half  an  inch  long  at  maturity,  burrows  downward,  eating 
out  the  pith  as  it  goes,  and  leaving  its  channel  filled  with  dark  brown- 


346  Bush-Fruits 

ish  refuse.  Toward  autumn  it  eats  a  passage  wa-y  to  the  outer  bark, 
wraps  itself  in  a  thin  silken  cocoon  and  passes  the  winter  in  the 
lower  end  of  its  burrow.  In  the  spring  it  changes  to  a  pupa,  and 
thence  emerges  as  a  perfect  insect  in  May.  The  female  is  then  a 
shining  black  fly  with  light  brownish-yellow  legs  and  the  front  of 
the  abdomen  reddish  orange.  She  is  about  half  an  inch  long  by 
three-fourths  of  an  inch  broad,  with  wings  extended.  The  male 
is  somewhat  smaller  and  nearly  all  of  the  abdomen  is  brownish- 
yellow. 

Remedies. — Cutting  out  and  burning  all  injured  tips  is  an  efficient 
and  practical  remedy.  The  larvae  rarely  get  more  than  six  inches  be- 
low where  the  egg  is  laid,  and  this  being  only  an  inch  or  so  below  the 
girdle,  cutting  away  eight  inches  of  the  stem  at  any  time  during  the 
summer  or  winter,  will  destroy  the  insect.  If  done  soon  after  the 
girdle  is  made  two  or  three  inches  will  suffice.  The  larvae  may 
readily  be  found  by  splitting  open  the  cane.  Many  eggs  fail  to  de- 
velop, and  the  young  larvae  often  perish  before  attaining  their 
growth.  This  checks  their  increase,  but  does  not  affect  the  injury 
for  the  current  year. 
References. 

Marlatt,  Ins.  Life,  7:  387. 

Slingerland,  Cornell  Univ.  Expt.  Sta.  Bull.  126: 41. 

THE   GROSELLE   STEM-MINER 

Opostega  nonstrigella,  Ch. 

This  is  a  very  minute  insect,  the  larva  of  which  mines  in  the  outer 
bark  of  currant  and  gooseberry  shoots.  Its  presence  is  shown  by  fine, 
dark  streaks  in  the  outer  wood  near  the  tips.  The  streaks  are  more 
or  less  parallel  and  extend  up  and  down  the  canes  for  a  short  distance, 
having  rounded  connections  at  the  ends.  These  are  the  mines  of 
a  very  tiny,  whitish,  thread-like  larva,  with  whitish  body  and  dark 
head,  but  so  minute  that  it  is  very  difficult  to  detect.  The  largest 
larvae  are  found  in  the  previous  season's  growth  or  reaching  across 
from  that  to  the  new  shoots.  The  larva  first  mines  its  way  toward 
the  tip,  turns  back  in  the  opposite  direction  parallel  to  this,  again 
turning  and  reentering  the  same  mine  at  the  starting  point,  then 


The  Less  Important  Enemies  347 

remining  that.  After  making  some  two  rounds  of  the  channel  it 
emerges  to  pupate  in  the  ground.  The  adult  is  a  small  silvery-white 
moth.  An  infested  twig  is  shown  in  Plate  VIII. 

The  direct  injury  caused  by  these  miners  is  not  likely  to  be  serious. 
Greater  harm  is  likely  to  follow  from  the  work  of  fungi  which  may 
gain  entrance  through  the  wounds  made  by  them.  Some  injury  to 
gooseberry  shoots  has  been  observed  from  this  cause. 

The  injury  caused  by  the  miners  has  been  commonly  known  under 
the  name  of  "medullary  spots." 

Control. — No  definite  means  of  control  are  known,  though  it  has 
been  suggested  that  cultivation  about  the  plants  during  the  pupal 
stage  may  prove  helpful. 
Reference. 

Geneva,  N.  Y.,  Expt.  Sta.  Tech.  Bull.  15. 

THE  LESS   IMPORTANT  ENEMIES 

The  foregoing  list  includes  those  insects  which  are  likely  to  prove 
seriously  injurious,  but  many  others  feed  upon  these  plants.  At 
times  a  few  of  these  may  do  real  damage.  Many  are  general  feeders 
and  if  groselles  happen  to  afford  the  most  available  food  they  are 
likely  to  suffer.  Among  the  ones  most  likely  to  occur  may  be  men- 
tioned the  following. 

Lycia  cognataria,  Guenee,  termed  the  pepper  and  salt  currant-moth 
by  Slingerland  and  Crosby,  is  a  general  feeder,  the  larva  of  which 
seeks  to  escape  detection  by  resembling  a  dead  twig.  When  full 
grown  it  is  nearly  two  inches  long.  It  is  seldom  likely  to  cause  serious 
harm. 

The  walnut  scale,  Aspidiotus  juglans-regiae,  Comstock,  sometimes 
attacks  currant  stems.  It  is  closely  related  to  the  San  Jose  scale  but 
larger  in  size.  The  same  methods  of  treatment  should  prove  effective. 

Several  other  species  of  scale  insects  are  also  found  on  these  plants. 
Green  fruit-worms,  leaf-rollers,  climbing  cut-worms,  the  apple  leaf- 
hopper,  flea-beetles,  red-spider,  and  even  the  flat-headed  apple-tree 
borer  may  be  found  at  times,  but  seldom  need  cause  concern. 


CHAPTER  XVI 
DISEASES  OF  THE  GROSELLES 

MANY  fungi  are  known  to  attack  the  genus  Ribes,  yet 
few  do  harm  enough  to  demand  consideration  from  an 
economic  stand  point.  The  one  which  is  best  known,  and 
which  has  created  far  more  discussion  than  any  other  in 
American  horticultural  literature,  is  the  gooseberry  mil- 
dew. This  disease  alone,  like  the  phylloxera  of  the  grape, 
has  forced  the  development  of  varieties  from  native  species, 
which  doubtless  would  not  have  been  done  had  the  Eng- 
lish varieties  proved  successful  in  this  climate.  The  fol- 
lowing list  includes  those  diseases  which  are  most  im- 
portant. 

GOOSEBERRY  MILDEW 

Spcerotheca  mors-uvce,  Schw.,  B.  and  C. 

This  is  one  of  the  most  widely  known  of  the  diseases  affecting  the 
genus  Ribes.  It  first  appears  on  the  young  leaves  and  tender  tips 
of  the  growing  shoots.  The  young  fruits  are  soon  attacked  in  the 
same  way  and  partially  or  entirely  checked  in  their  growth,  being 
rendered  wholly  unfit  for  use  in  most  cases.  It  first  appears  as  a 
patch  of  cobweb-like  threads,  which  soon  form  a  dense  mat  and 
become  white  and  powdery  from  the  development  of  white  conidial 
or  summer  spores.  These  are  produced  in  immense  numbers,  and 
are  readily  blown  about  by  the  wind,  or  carried  by  rain,  to  contribute 
to  the  further  spread  of  the  disease.  A  few  weeks  later  the  winter 
spores,  or  ascospores,  begin  to  develop.  These  are  contained  within 
chestnut-colored  perithecia,  which  give  a  dirty  brown  appearance 

348 


Gooseberry  Mildew  349 

to  the  affected  parts.  These  spores  remain  over  winter  within  the 
protecting  perithecium  and  germinate  in  spring,  thereby  spreading 
the  species  the  succeeding  year. 

In  former  years  this  disease  appears  to  have  been  confined  to 
America,  but  about  1900  it  appeared  in  Europe  and  since  that  time 
has  come  to  be  very  destructive  there.  European  varieties  are  much 
more  susceptible  than  American  sorts,  hence  it  has  been  able  to 
spread  more  rapidly,  even  though  the  climate  may  be  less  favorable 
to  its  development.  In  America  the  disease  is  less  serious  in  the 
northern  portions  of  the  United  States  and  in  Canada  than  farther 
south.  Many  English  varieties  or  their  seedlings  have  been  intro- 
duced as  mildew  proof,  only  to  suffer  the  same  injury  as  previous 
sorts  after  a  few  years  of  general  trial.  The  American  varieties  are 
not  wholly  exempt  from  attack,  but  are  much  less  susceptible,  and 
seldom  suffer  serious  injury. 

Remedies. — Numberless  remedies  against  the  disease  have  been  sug- 
gested. No  less  than  fifteen  of  these  have  come  under  the  writer's 
observation,  most  of  which  were  reported  successful  in  greater  or  less 
degree.  Among  them,  mulching  with  sea  weed,  salt  hay,  green 
grass,  tan  bark,  stones,  tin  cans,  boards,  etc.,  is  most  frequently 
mentioned.  This  does  aid  in  many  cases,  as  it  helps  to  keep  the  soil 
cool,  but  it  cannot  be  depended  upon  to  afford  immunity. 

This  disease  is  more  difficult  to  control  than  some  others,  because 
the  mycelium  of  the  fungus  is  more  persistent.  Potassium  sulfide, 
at  the  rate  of  half  an  ounce  to  each  gallon  of  water,  is  one  of  the  best 
remedies  known.  It  should  be  applied  first  as  the  buds  are  opening, 
and  repeated  at  intervals  of  ten  to  fourteen  days  if  the  disease 
promises  to  be  serious.  Lime-sulfur  in  the  proportion  of  one  to 
forty,  is  also  effective.  If  the  disease  is  very  abundant  three  or  four 
sprayings  may  be  needed.  Bordeaux  mixture  is  not  a  satisfactory 
remedy. 
Reference. 

Geneva,  N.  Y.,  Expt.  Sta.  Bull.  161. 


350  Bush-Fruits 


ANTHRACNOSE 

Pseudopeziza  Ribis,  Kleb. 

Although  not  so  well  known  as  the  gooseberry  mildew,  this  disease 
is  one  which  often  causes  serious  damage  to  currants  and  goose- 
berries by  attacking  the  leaves  and  causing  them  to  fall  prematurely. 
The  disease  is  widely  distributed  in  this  and  other  countries  and 
probably  occurs  wherever  these  fruits  are  grown.  Some  varieties 
are  more  susceptible  than  others.  Gooseberries  generally  suffer 
less  than  currants.  The  fungus  first  appears  on  the  upper  surface 
of  the  older  leaves,  causing  small,  round,  dark  brown  spots,  about 
one-twenty-fifth  of  an  inch  across.  A  small  black  spot  is  soon  formed 
in  the  center  of  each  brown  one,  and  the  entire  leaf  turns  yellow. 
The  leaf  and  flower-stalks,  young  canes  and  fruit  are  also  attacked. 
On  the  fruit  it  appears  as  small  black  specks,  being  especially  no- 
ticeable on  the  gooseberry.  See  Plate  XV. 

The  fungus  is  spread  during  summer  by  spores  which  develop  in 
a  fruiting  body  that  is  formed  within  the  tissues  of  the  plant.  When 
mature  these  fruiting  bodies  break  through  the  surface  and  push 
out  the  summer  spores  in  a  sticky  mass  which  readily  dissolves  in 
water  and  is  scattered  by  wind  and  rain.  The  spores  need  moisture 
for  germination  and  the  disease  spreads  more  rapidly  in  damp  cloudy 
weather. 

Control. — Bordeaux  mixture  at  the  rate  of  5-5-50,  or  lime-sulfur  at 
the  rate  of  1  to  40  or  50,  has  been  found  an  effective  remedy.  The 
first  spraying  should  be  given  about  the  time  the  leaves  appear,  and 
be  repeated  at  intervals  of  ten  to  twenty  days.  Five  or  six  sprayings 
are  generally  needed,  depending  somewhat  upon  weather  conditions. 
The  foliage  must  be  kept  well  covered  throughout  the  summer  if 
the  treatment  is  to  be  thoroughly  effective.  The  addition  of  lead 
arsenate,  at  the  rate  of  two  pounds  to  fifty  gallons  of  water, 
at  the  first  and  second  sprayings,  will  control  currant  worms 
as  well. 

Experiments  made  by  Cornell  University  Experiment  Station  in- 
dicate that  dusting  with  finely-powdered  sulfur,  nine  parts,  and 
powdered  arsenate  of  lead  one  part,  is  also  effective  in  controlling 


Currant  Cane-blight  351 

the  disease.    The  arsenate  of  lead  not  only  serves  as  an  insecticide 

but  adds  to  the  sticking  qualities  of  the  dust. 

References. 

Geneva,  N.  Y.,  Expt.  Sta.  Bull.  199. 

Cornell  Univ.  Expt.  Sta.  Bull.  358: 194  and  Circular  32. 

CURRANT  LEAF-SPOT 

Septoria  Ribis,  Desm. 

This  leaf-spot  is  similar  to  anthracnose,  but  the  spots  are  larger, 
usually  about  an  eighth  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  and  more  or  less 
irregular.  They  are  clearly  marked  and  brown  about  the  borders, 
with  light-colored,  grayish  centers.  As  the  spots  grow  old,  several 
minute  black  specks  appear  in  these  grayish  centers.  The  spots  of 
anthracnose  are  dark-colored  and  often  not  larger  than  the  head  of 
a  pin.  If  the  spots  are  numerous  the  leaf  turns  yellow  and  falls,  as 
with  anthracnose.  The  two  diseases  are  often  found  growing  to- 
gether. All  varieties  of  currants  and  gooseberries  are  attacked  but 
some  suffer  more  than  others.  The  spores  are  spread  in  much  the 
same  manner  as  are  those  of  anthracnose  and  the  same  weather  con- 
ditions favor  their  development.  It  is  thought  to  pass  the  winter 
on  the  fallen  leaves.  The  appearance  of  the  two  diseases  is  shown 
in  Plate  XV. 

Control. — Leaf-spot  is  controlled  by  the  same  means  as  anthracnose. 
The  treatment  should  be  virtually  the  same  whichever  disease  may  be 
present.  Still  another  fungus,  Cercospora,  angulata,  Wint.,  has  been 
reported  on  red  and  black  currants  growing  with  leaf -spot  and  yield- 
ing to  the  same  treatment. 
References. 

Iowa  Expt.  Sta.  Bulls.  13  and  17. 

Geneva,  N.  Y.,  Expt.  Sta.  Bull.  199. 

Cornell  Univ.  Expt.  Sta.  Bull.  358: 198. 

CURRANT  CANE-BLIGHT 

Botryosphceria  Ribis,  Gross.  &  Dug. 

Much  confusion  has  existed  regarding  the  name  of  this  disease, 
because  the  fungus  which  produces  it  has  three  distinct  spore-forms. 


352  Bush-Fruits 

This  has  led  to  different  classifications  and  names  at  different  times. 
The  first  indication  of  the  disease  is  the  wilting  of  the  leaves  on  certain 
canes  or  parts  of  canes.  These  soon  turn  brown  and  die.  A  section 
of  dead  wood  will  be  found,  from  one  to  four  inches  in  length,  where 
the  bark  has  been  killed  and  the  wood  and  pith  invaded  by  the 
fungus.  This  prevents  the  movement  of  sap  and  the  parts  above 
wither  and  die.  The  general  appearance  is  much  like  that  of  the 
work  of  cane-borers,  but  no  burrows  or  insects  are  present.  The 
whitish  mycelium  within  the  pith  can  be  detected  by  the  aid  of  a 
hand  lens  and  sometimes  even  with  the  naked  eye. 

The  disease  is  known  in  different  localities  but  has  proved  particu- 
larly destructive  in  the  Hudson  valley.  It  is  there  considered  one  of 
the  chief  obstacles  to  successful  currant-culture.  The  plants  are 
rarely  killed  outright,  but  as  they  grow  older  more  and  more  of  the 
canes  are  affected  until  so  little  fruiting  wood  remains  that  the  planta- 
tion no  longer  pays.  While  it  varies  in  intensity  somewhat  from 
year  to  year  it  never  disappears  from  a  plantation  once  attacked. 

A  point  of  interest  in  connection  with  this  fungus  is  that  it  appears 
to  be  the  favorite  food  of  the  American  currant-borer,  Psenocerus 
supernotatus,  which  feeds  upon  the  spores  and  growing  parts,  both 
in  the  field  and  in  collected  material. 

Control. — No  practicable  means  of  controlling  the  disease  seems  to 
be  known.  Careful  experiments  in  cutting  out  the  diseased  wood 
at  frequent  intervals  during  the  growing  season  failed  to  hold  it 
in  check,  in  experiments  made  by  the  Geneva,  N.  Y.,  Experiment 
Station. 
References. 

Geneva,  N.  Y.,  Expt.  Sta.  Bulls.  167,  357  and  Tech.  Bull.  18. 

Cornell  Univ.  Expt.  Sta.  Bull.  125.  » 

CURRANT   FELT-RUST 

Cronartium  ribicola,  Fisch,  de  Wald. 

This  fungus,  like  some  other  rusts,  passes  one  of  its  stages  on  one 
plant  and  one  on  another.  The  other  host-plant  of  this  one  is  usually 
the  white  pine,  though  other  five-leaved  pines  may  be  affected.  The 
fungus  lives  from  year  to  year  in  the  pine,  but  the  spores  which  are 


Gooseberry  Cluster-cup  353 

there  produced  cannot  infect  other  pines.  Hence  the  disease  cannot 
spread  directly  from  pine  to  pine.  It  must  first  go  to  the  groselles 
and  from  there  back  to  pine.  Various  species  of  currants  and  goose- 
berries are  subject  to  attack.  Certain  spores  produced  by  the  fungus 
while  living  on  them  can  only  infect  the  pine.  Those  of  another 
type  affect  groselles  readily,  so  that  during  summer  and  autumn 
the  disease  may  spread  readily  among  these  plants.  Only  the  leaves 
of  these  plants  are  attacked,  so  that  the  work  of  the  fungus  ends 
with  the  season,  so  far  as  they  are  concerned.  Difficulty  in  explain- 
ing certain  outbreaks  of  the  disease  have  led  to  the  suggestion  that 
perhaps  in  some  form  the  fungus  may  pass  the  whiter  on  Ribes 
plants.  Careful  experiments  have  shown,  however,  that  rarely  if 
ever  does  such  a  thing  occur,  and  then  certainly  not  under  normal 
conditions. 

Control. — This  rust  is  a  European  disease,  and  is  found  chiefly  on 
imported  pines.  Since  it  is  only  from  such  sources  that  it  can  spread, 
care  should  be  taken  to  prevent  the  dissemination  of  such  stock  or  its 
being  allowed  to  remain  if  found.  The  fungus  is  a  more  serious 
enemy  to  the  pine  than  to  the  groselles.  In  Europe  it  has  driven 
the  growing  of  white  pine  out  of  some  nurseries  and  localities.  It 
has  been  urged  that  the  importation  of  five-leaved  pine  should  be 
stopped  and  that  they  should  be  kept  away  from  groselles  in  the 
nursery.  If  the  disease  is  found  it  is  recommended  to  destroy  the 
least  valuable  group  entirely  and  all  diseased  plants  in  the  other. 

Just  at  the  present  time  this  disease  appears  to  be  causing  great 
consternation  in  the  United  States.  Several  states  have  estab- 
lished quarantine  regulations  forbidding  the  importation  of  five- 
leaved  pines  and  of  currants  and  gooseberries  within  their  borders. 
References. 

Geneva,  N.  Y.,  Expt.  Sta.  Bull.  374  and  Tech.  Bull.  2. 

Bur.  of  Plant  Indus.  Bull.  206. 

GOOSEBERRY   CLUSTER-CUP 

Puccinia  ribis-caricis,  Kleb. 

This  disease  takes  the  form  of  reddish-yellow  swellings  on  the 
leaves  and  fruit  with  clusters  of  minute  cups  imbedded  in  the  dis- 


354  Bush-Fruits 

eased  tissue.  It  varies  much  in  frequency.  Ordinarily  it  causes  no 
damage,  but  occasionally  seems  to  develop  with  unusual  rapidity, 
and  works  serious  injury.  It  is  difficult  to  combat,  for  when  the 
cluster-cups  appear  so  that  the  disease  is  noticed,  the  harm  for  that 
year  is  already  done.  Since  the  causal  fungus,  in  its  winter  condition, 
infests  various  species  of  common  sedges  the  destruction  of  all  sedges 
in  the  vicinity  should  be  helpful  in  the  control  of  the  disease.  Per- 
haps spraying  for  the  gooseberry  mildew  may  prevent  the  earliest  in 
fection. 


PART  IV 
MISCELLANEOUS  TYPES 

CHAPTER  XVII 
OTHER  SPECIES  OF  BUSH-FRUITS 

ALTHOUGH  the  foregoing  pages  describe  all  the  bush- 
fruits  which  have  much  commercial  importance  in  cultiva- 
tion, there  are  certain  other  types  which  are  either  coming 
into  domestication  or  which  are  occasionally  seen  in  private 
gardens.  To  these  we  shall  now  give  attention. 

BUFFALO   BERRY 

Shepherdia  argentea,  Nutt.     Lepargyrcea  argentea,  Greene. 

The  buffalo  berry  is  a  thorny,  deciduous  shrub,  growing 
from  5-20  feet  high,  with  a  whitened  or  silvery  appearance 
throughout.  Its  leaves  are  narrow,  1-1 J^  inches  long, 
pointed  at  the  base,  entire,  and  silvery  white  on  both 
sides.  The  flowers  are  small,  yellow  and  dioecious.  The 
fruit  is  round  or  ovoid,  scarlet,  or  more  rarely  yellow,  with 
a  single  smooth  seed,  and  a  sprightly  acid  and  agreeable 
flavor.  It  is  borne  in  very  compact  clusters  in  the  axils 
of  the  small  branches,  ripening  in  July,  but  remaining  on 
the  bushes  till  frost,  or  later.  The  plant  occurs  through- 
out the  Plains,  westward  to  the  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains, 

355 


356  Bush-Fruits 

and  from  the  Saskatchewan  southward  to  the  mountains 
of  New  Mexico. 

The  name  buffalo  berry  is  said  to  have  been  derived 
from  the  custom  of  eating  the  berries  as  a  sauce  with 
buffalo  meat.  It  has  also  been  known  as  rabbit  berry  and 
blood  berry,  while  Crozier  states  l  that  it  has  even  been 
improperly  called  cornelian  cherry.  A  writer  in  the  "  Gar- 
dener's Monthly"  2  speaks  of  it  as  the  Nebraska  currant. 

The  buffalo  berry  has  enjoyed  the  distinction  of  re- 
maining a  new  fruit  for  a  very  long  time.  In  1841,  William 
Oakes,  in  discussing  the  advance  of  spring  in  eastern 
Massachusetts,  mentions  the  buffalo  berry,  and  inciden- 
tally states  that  it  was  then  frequently  cultivated.  This  f 
was  the  same  year  that  our  earliest  cultivated  blackberry 
made  its  first  appearance  on  the  exhibition  tables  of  the 
Massachusetts  Horticultural  Society,  and  some  years  he- 
fore  either  the  black  raspberry  or  the  blackberry  came 
into  general  cultivation.  Yet  we  are  still  talking  about 
the  buffalo  berry  as  a  new  fruit  which  ought  to  be  intro- 
duced. Fuller,  in  his  "Small-Fruit  Culturist,"  published 
in  1867,  gives  a  full  account  of  it.  The  fruit  possesses 
good  qualities,  and  the  plant  is  useful  in  ornamental 
planting,  but  it  is  not  likely  to  be  extensively  grown  as  a 
fruit-producing  plant,  unless  it  should  be  in  localities 
where  other  garden  fruits  fail.  N.  E.  Hansen,  of  South 
Dakota,  writes  that  he  considers  it  of  promise  only  where 
the  currant  does  not  do  well.  Attempts  to  establish  it  in 
Nebraska  have  thus  far  met  with  indifferent  results.  The 
fruit  is  abundant,  but  its  large  seed  and  the  thorny  habit 

1  Amer.  Garden,  11:650. 
2 1873:  23. 


Buffalo  Berry  357 

of  the  plant  are  against  it.  Plants  vary  in  the  latter  re- 
gard, and  careful  selection  might  develop  forms  compara- 
tively free  from  thorns.  The  berries  vary  much  in  size, 
commonly  being  about  the  size  of  currants,  though  some- 
times as  large  as  small  gooseberries.  It  generally  occurs 
along  the  borders  of  streams,  which  indicates  that  it  may 
need  a  moist  soil.  It  is  sometimes  found  on  loose,  dry 
sand,  but  with  available  moisture  beneath.  Its  early- 
blooming  period  may  subject  it  to  injury  from  spring 
frosts,  hence  a  cool  northern  slope  would  be  desirable. 

Plants  are  propagated  from  suckers,  cuttings  or  seeds. 
The  suckers  are  produced  but  sparingly,  but  are  readily 
separated  whenever  found.  From  the  fact  that  a  large 
number  of  plants  produced  from  suckers  proved  to  be  all 
staminate,  S.  B.  Green  was  led  to  infer  1  that  perhaps 
the  staminate  plants  produce  more  suckers  than  the 
pistillate.  Later  observations  did  not  enable  •  him  to 
settle  the  point  definitely.  It  is  said  to  grow  readily  from 
cuttings  taken  in  autumn  and  treated  like  grape  and 
currant  cuttings.  Seeds  should  be  planted  when  the  fruit 
is  ripe,  or  mixed  with  sand  and  planted  the  following 
spring.  Fuller  states  2  that  the  best  way  is  to  plant  at 
once  in  rows,  one  or  two  inches  deep,  transplanting  into 
nursery  rows  when  one  year  old.  He  says  that  they  will 
usually  bloom  the  third  year  from  seed,  when  the  stam- 
inate and  pistillate  plants  can  be  readily  marked  or  sepa- 
rated. 

In  planting,  it  is  important  to  see  that  both  sexes  are 
placed  together;  otherwise  no  fruit  can  be  produced. 

1  Bull.  18,  Minn.  Exp.  Sta.,  p.  129. 

2  Small-Fruit  Culturist,  252. 


358  Bush-Fruits 

Failure  has  often  resulted  from  inattention  to  this  detail. 
L.  C.  Corbett  has  pointed  out l  that  it  is  unnecessary  to 
leave  the  young  plants  until  they  flower  to  determine  their 
sex.  He  says:  " There  is  another  and  easier  way  of  dis- 
tinguishing the  staminate  from  the  pistillate  plants;  i.  e.y 
by  bud  characters  while  in  a  dormant  condition.  With 
care  and  experience  one  can  readily  separate  the  two." 
In  the  pistillate  plants  the  buds  are  smaller,  more  slender, 
and  arranged  in  less  compact  clusters. 

The  buffalo  berry  is  worth  planting  as  an  ornamental 
shrub  or  small  tree.  Its  silvery  foliage  is  distinct  and 
attractive,  and  its  loads  of  fruit,  if  not  taken  by  birds, 
render  it  a  showy  object  throughout  the  closing  months 
of  the  year.  It  appears  to  be  perfectly  hardy  in  the  north- 
ern states  when  once  established. 

The  fruit  has  a  sprightly,  agreeable  flavor,  which  makes 
it  pleasant  to  eat  from  the  hand.  It  dries,  but  keeps  in- 
definitely. Fruit  which  lay  in  my  desk  for  several  years 
still  retained  its  sprightliness.  Frost  is  said  to  greatly  im- 
prove its  quality,  and  it  may  be  gathered  from  the  bushes 
at  any  time  during  winter,  if  not  previously  taken  by 
birds.  It  makes  a  very  good  jelly,  and  is  said  to  be 
gathered  in  quantities  by  the  Navajo  Indians,  who 
probably  dry  it. 

The  plants  appear  to  be  very  productive,  for  they  are 
loaded  with  berries.  Yet  Hoskins  reported  2  that  with  him 
they  yielded  about  one-fourth  as  much  as  barberries,  and 
that  the  fruit  was  not  very  good.  It  may  prove  less  fruit- 
ful in  cultivation  than  in  its  native  haunts. 

1  Amer.  Gardening,  1895:  45. 

2  Rural  New-Yorker,  1895:  826. 


The  Goumi  359 

THE   GOUMI    (Fig.    51) 

Elceagnus  multi flora,  Thunb. 

The  goumi  is  a  low,  bushy  shrub,  with  dark  gray  or 
rusty  brown  branches,  commonly  unarmed,  though  some- 
times bearing  spines.  The  leaves  are  green  above,  silvery 
beneath,  and  sprinkled  with  dark  colored  spots.  The 
flowers  are  small,  yellowish  within,  silvery  and  roughly 


Fig.  51.  The  goumi. 

scurfy  on  the  outside,  often  dark-dotted  like  the  lower 
surface  of  the  leaves.  They  appear  by  the  middle  of  May, 
and  are  borne  at  the  base  of  short  side  shoots  of  the  current 
season's  growth.  The  fruit  is  oval,  blunt,  or  slightly  flat- 
tened at  the  ends,  half  an  inch  or  more  in  length,  cinnabar- 
red  or  orange  colored,  and  covered  with  silvery  white  dots. 
It  ripens  in  July,  and  is  juicy  and  fine  looking,  but  at 
first  very  astringent,  leaving  a  disagreeable  taste  in  the 
mouth.  This  quality  disappears  to  some  extent  when  the 
fruit  is  fully  ripened. 

The  plant  grows  wild  in  eastern  Asia,  from  Himalaya 


360  Bush-Fruits 

and  Nepal,  north  to  China  and  Japan.  It  appears  to  have 
been  first  brought  to  notice  in  England  in  1873,  having 
been  exhibited  before  the  Royal  Botanical  and  Royal 
Horticultural  Societies  that  year.  William  Falconer 
writes  1  that  in  August,  1889,  Ellwanger  &  Barry  had  but 
a  single  plant  of  it.  Reports  differ  as  to  the  edible  quality 
of  the  fruit.  William  Falconer,  in  the  above  note,  says 
that  it  is  cooked  and  used  as  a  sauce  with  meat,  especially 
chicken,  and  "it  is  one  of  the  most  delicious  sauces  that 
ever  tickled  the  human  palate."  Others  do  not  speak  so 
favorably  of  it,  saying  that  cooking  increases  its  disagree- 
able astringent  qualities.  Bailey  says  2  that  he  enjoys  eat- 
ing the  fruit  from  the  bushes  when  fully  ripe,  but  has  not 
tried  it  for  culinary  purposes.  It  is  too  acid  for  dessert, 
being  better  adapted  to  uses  like  those  of  the  cranberry. 
It  is  also  recommended  for  jelly. 

The  plant  is  perfectly  hardy  in  the  eastern  states,  and 
immensely  productive.  Its  close  relation  to  the  so-called 
Russian  olive,  Elceagnus  angustifolia,  which  is  a  very 
reliable  tree  throughout  the  northwest,  indicates  that  it 
may  also  prove  hardy  in  that  region.  It  is  said  to  succeed 
well  in  California  on  various  soils.  In  regard  to  propaga- 
tion, Bailey  says: 2  "The  goumi  grows  readily  from  seeds. 
These  should  be  sown  or  stratified  in  summer,  before  they 
become  dry,  and  allowed  to  freeze  the  following  winter. 
The  next  spring  they  should  germinate  freely.  Cuttings 
of  the  half-ripened  wood  strike  readily  in  June  or  July, 
if  handled  in  frames." 

The  goumi  is  certainly  a  promising  ornamental  plant. 

American  Garden,  11:  119. 

2  Bull.  117,  Cornell  Univ.  Exp.  Sta.,  p.  383. 


Huckleberries  or  Blueberries  361 

Its  fruit  is  attractive  while  it  lasts,  and  the  foliage  con- 
trasts well  with  that  of  other  plants.  In  nurseries  the 
plant  is  sometimes  known  as  Elceagnus  edulis,  and  in 
various  places  it  has  received  mention  under  the  name 
Elceagnus  pungens;  it  is  also  known  as  Elceagnus  longipes. 
A  closely  related  species,  Elceagnus  umbellata,  also  known 
under  the  name  " Silver  Thorn,"  has  been  sometimes  sold 
for  Elceagnus  longipes,  and  in  other  cases  sold  under  its 
right  name.  This  is  larger,  more  open  and  more  thorny 
than  the  goumi.  with  lighter  colored  branches.  Its  fruit, 
which  is  smaller  and  possesses  no  value,  ripens  later.  The 
plant  possesses  about  the  same  ornamental  qualities  as 
E.  longipes,  but  according  to  Dippel,1  is  less  hardy  in 
Germany. 

HUCKLEBERRIES  OR  BLUEBERRIES 

The  confusion  existing  in  the  use  of  these  two  names 
may  as  well  be  discussed  at  the  outset.  What  one  means 
by  their  use  depends  chiefly  on  where  he  chanced  to  live. 
Throughout  the  southern,  middle  and  mid-western  states, 
where  these  fruits  are  common,  the  name  huckleberry  is 
a  general  term  applied  to  all  fruits  of  the  group.  In  New 
England  this  name  is  limited  to  fruits  of  one  genus,  Gay- 
lussacia,  and  chiefly  to  the  common  black  huckleberry, 
Gaylussada  baccata,  which  is  there  so  common.  There 
the  name  blueberry  is  applied  to  plants  of  the  genus 
Vaccinium,  and  more  especially  to  Vaccinium  corym- 
bosum,  the  "swamp  blueberry"  of  New  England  or 
"  high  huckleberry  "  of  the  middle  states.  This  distinction 
1  Handbuch  der  Laubholzkunde,  3:  207. 


362  Bush-Fruits 

would  be  more  useful  if  all  huckleberries  were  black  and 
all  blueberries  blue.  But  the  dangleberry,  Gaylussacia 
frondosa  is  as  much  a  blueberry  in  point  of  color  as  any 
of  the  others.  Yet  it  belongs  to  the  group  known  as 
huckleberries  in  New  England. 

In  this  discussion  the  word  huckleberry  may  be  taken 
in  its  broader  meaning,  as  a  general  term  covering  all 
fruits  of  the  group.  The  word  blueberry  will  be  used 
for  fruits  or  plants  of  the  genus  Vaccinium. 

The  huckleberries  belong  to  the  heath  family,  or  Eri- 
cacese,  which  includes  a  great  many  delightful  wild  wood 
plants,  such  as  the  wintergreen,  the  trailing  arbutus,  the 
heather,  the  mountain  laurel,  and  the  rhododendrons. 
In  spite  of  the  beauty  and  attractive  graces  displayed  by 
so  many  of  these  plants,  they  belong  to  a  modest  and 
retiring  family.  They  seldom  mingle  among  the  crowds 
of  the  open  country,  but  withdraw  to  the  quiet,  shaded 
nooks  of  moist  woods  and  mossy  swamps,  or  climb  to  bare 
and  rocky  heights,  where  the  solitude  is  even  more  im- 
pressive. So  marked  is  this  inherent  shyness  that  most 
members  of  the  family  do  not  take  kindly  to  cultivation. 
They  pine  for  their  woodland  glens  or  rocky  crags,  no 
matter  how  tender  the  care  bestowed  upon  them.  Hence 
it  happens  that  the  huckleberries,  though  among  the 
finest  of  fruits,  and  among  the  most  important  in  the  wild 
state,  have  been  little  known  in  cultivation  up  to  the 
present  time. 

Several  causes  have  prevented  them  from  receiving 
more  attention.  In  the  first  place,  the  fruit  grows  wild 
in  abundance  over  large  portions  of  the  country.  Added 
to  this  has  been  the  uncertainty  of  success  in  transplant- 


Huckleberries  or  Blueberries  363 

ing,  which  with  some  species  is  considerable,  and  which 
is  evidently  supposed  to  be  much  greater  with  all  than 
it  really  is.  But  the  greatest  drawback  has  undoubtedly 
been  the  difficulty  experienced  in  propagating.  The 
spread  of  any  plant  in  cultivation  is  largely  dependent 
upon  the  nurserymen,  and  one  which  they  find  it  hard 
and  expensive  to  propagate  is  not  likely  to  become  widely 
cultivated.  Both  the  difficulty  in  propagation  and  the 
indifferent  results  often  attending  attempts  to  grow  it, 
have  been  largely  due  to  the  fact  that  the  peculiar  needs 
of  the  plant  have  not  been  understood  until  very  recently. 

The  wild  berry  fields  are  yearly  growing  less.  While 
many  mountainous  tracts  are  doubtless  worth  more  as 
huckleberry  patches  than  for  any  other  purpose,  unless 
it  be  to  produce  forests,  on  much  of  this  land  the  huckle- 
berry must  give  place  to  something  else  as  time  goes  on 
and  civilization  and  agriculture  improve.  But  the  huckle- 
berry is  too  fine  a  fruit  to  lose,  and  it  is  a  source  of  gratifica- 
tion to  note  that  recent  investigations  are  proving  that 
it  can  be  propagated  and  grown  with  full  hope  of  success 
if  the  proper  localities  are  chosen  and  the  correct  methods 
followed.  The  future  of  this  fruit  ought  to  be  assured, 
for  it  is  a  promising  one.  It  has  no  menacing  thorns  and 
its  desirable  qualities  are  numerous. 

Commercially,  the  huckleberry  is  a  fruit  of  very  con- 
siderable importance,  being  gathered  and  shipped  into 
the  city  markets  in  large  quantities.  The  receipts  in  New 
York  city  are  said  to  exceed  2,000  bushels  a  day  in  the. 
height  of  the  season,  while  the  entire  quantity  sold  is 
estimated  to  be  ten  times  that  of  any  other  berry.1  The 
iAmer.  Garden,  12:  18,  565. 


364  Bush-Fruits 

annual  huckleberry  crop  of  Wisconsin  has  been  estimated 
at  20,000  bushels,  valued  at  between  $60,000  and  $80,000. 

A  few  instances  are  on  record  of  success  in  a  commercial 
way  under  cultivation  or  semi-cultivation.  These  have 
usually  consisted  in  treating  wild  huckleberry  land  in  such 
a  way  as  to  increase  the  returns  from  plants  already  grow- 
ing upon  it.  This  may  often  be  done  to  advantage.  In 
swamps,  competing  growth  may  be  cut  away  if  the  stand 
of  plants  will  warrant.  On  wild  land  where  low  huckle- 
berries are  abundant,  frequently  burning  over  the  area 
will  improve  the  returns.  This  practice,  by  irresponsible 
parties,  has  often  caused  serious  fires  in  the  mountain 
regions  of  the  Atlantic  states.  Some  plan  of  encouraging 
and  protecting  the  wild  growth  is  about  the  only  method 
which  promises  success  with  the  low-growing  kinds. 

The  high  huckleberry  or  swamp  blueberry  has  often 
been  tried  under  garden  culture,  with  varying  degrees 
of  success.  Transplanting  wild  plants  is  not  a  difficult 
operation.  The  writer's  experience,  showed  no  greater 
proportion  of  loss  than  is  likely  to  occur  in  moving  other 
wild  plants.  Success  depends  not  so  much  on  transplant- 
ing as  in  the  behavior  of  the  plants  afterward.  In  some 
cases  they  have  thriven  and  borne  well;  in  others  they 
have  gradually  dwindled  away  and  disappeared. 

Among  the  attempts  made  to  bring  this  plant  under 
domestication,  should  be  mentioned  the  work  of  A.  S. 
Fuller,  Jackson  Dawson,  of  the  Arnold  Arboretum,  Benja- 
min G.  Smith,  formerly  Secretary  of  the  American  Porno- 
logical  Society,  and  others.  Dawson  probably  achieved 
greater  success  in  propagating  the  blueberry  than  any  other 
man  up  to  recent  times. 


Huckleberries  or  Blueberries  365 

Investigations  carried  on  by  the  United  States  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture,  under  the  direction  of  Frederick  V. 
Coville,1  have  thrown  a  flood  of  light  upon  the  whole 
problem  of  bringing  these  plants  under  domestication. 
His  experiments  have  been  chiefly  with  species  of  the 
genus  Vaccinium,  which  are  most  desirable  as  fruit-bearing 
plants.  The  following  discussion  of  methods  of  propaga- 
tion and  culture  is  based  on  Coville's  published  results. 
The  illustrations  used  were  also  furnished  by  him. 

It  has  long  been  known  that  there  is  associated  with  the 
roots  of  these  plants,  a  peculiar  fungous  growth,  which  has 
much  to  do  with  the  nutrition  of  the  plants.  Both  the 
blueberry  and  the  fungus  appear  to  profit  by  the  partner- 
ship. It  is  believed  that  the  fungus  assists  the  plant  in 
obtaining  nitrogen.  If  the  blueberry  is  to  thrive,  the  con- 
ditions must  be  right  for  the  fungus  to  thrive  also.  Coville 
has  proved,  what  others  had  suspected,  that  to  thrive 
the  blueberry  must  have  an  acid  soil.  His  observations 
appear  to  have  been  chiefly  with  Vaccinium  corymbosum, 
but  doubtless  apply  equally  well  to  other -members  of  the 
huckleberry  family.  The  particular  kind  of  acid  soil 
formed  by  a  mixture  of  sand  and  peat  is  the  one  in  which 
the  plants  thrive  best.  In  soils  with  an  alkaline  or  neu- 
tral reaction,  such  as  those  of  a  well-manured  garden, 
or  of  limestone  regions,  good  results  cannot  be  expected. 
Free  access  of  air  to  the  soil  is  also  essential.  Although  the 
swamp  blueberry,  as  its  name  indicates,  is  often  found 
growing  in  swamps,  it  will  not  thrive  where  its  roots  are 

1  See  "Experiments  in  Blueberry  Culture,"  Bulletin  193,  Bureau 
of  Plant  Industry,  and  "Directions  for  Blueberry  Culture/'  Bulletin 
334,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr. 


366  Bush-Fruits 

permanently  covered  with  water.  Some  species  of  low 
blueberries  thrive  on  dry,  rocky  hillsides,  but  Vaccinium 
corymbosum,  the  one  best  adapted  to  garden  culture,  de- 
mands a  soil  with  an  abundant  moisture  supply. 

Coville  sums  up  the  fundamental  requirements  of  suc- 
cessful blueberry  culture  in  the  following  words.  "  (1)  An 
acid  soil,  especially  one  composed  of  peat  and  sand; 
(2)  good  drainage  and  thorough  aeration  of  the  surface 
soil;  and  (3)  permanent  but  moderate  soil  moisture."  He 
adds  that  with  these  conditions  present,  the  root  fungus 
will  care  for  itself,  since  enough  will  be  carried  by  the  roots 
of  the  plant  when  set,  to  supply  all  needs. 

With  a  knowledge  of  these  essentials,  it  is  evident  that 
commercial  ventures  in  the  culture  of  this  fruit  should 
be  undertaken  only  where  these  conditions  prevail  nat- 
urally. Late  frosts  are  dangerous,  particularly  so  because 
this  type  of  soil  conditions  is  likely  to  occur  in  locations  es- 
pecially subject  to  frost.  Flooding  is  suggested  as  a  possi- 
ble means  of  preventing  frosts,  where  conditions  permit  it. 

Soil  mixture 

For  use  in  propagation,  and  in  starting  plants  in  the 
field  in  a  small  way,  where  the  needed  soil  conditions  do 
not  exist  naturally,  the  following  mixture  is  advised: — 
1  part  of  clean  sand,  9  parts  of  upland  peat,  either  chopped 
or  sifted,  and  3  parts  of  broken  flower-pots.  If  the  latter 
are  not  available,  more  sand  or  sand  and  gravel  should  be 
used.  No  loam,  lime,  nor  manure  should  be  used.  Man- 
ure is  thought  to  injure  the  friendly  root-fungus. 

The  peat  best  suited  to  the  purpose  is  that  found  in 
thickets  of  mountain  laurel,  clumps  of  low  blueberries,  or 


Plate  XVI.     Blueberries. — Propagation  above;  fruiting  bush  below. 


Huckleberries  or  Blueberries  367 

from  rotting  oak  leaves.  Oak  leaves  alone,  stacked  and 
rotted  for  a  time  will  serve.  An  interesting  point  brought 
out  is  that  some  leaves,  especially  maple,  rot  so  quickly 
that  within  a  year  they  pass  the  acid  stage  and  become 
alkaline.  They  are  then  unsuitable  and  even  fatal  to  the 
young  plants.  Oak  leaves  may  reach  the  same  condition 
in  time  if  no  fresh  material  is  added,  but  decay  more  slowly. 

Propagation  in  general 

The  difficulty  of  propagation  has  been  one  of  the 
chief  hindrances  to  more  general  cultivation  of  these 
fruits.  Plants  may  be  grown  from  seeds  but  this  is 
not  advised.  The  process  is  somewhat  troublesome, 
and  the  results  uncertain.  Even  when  the  seeds  are 
taken  from  large  fruit  only,  many  of  the  resulting  plants 
may  bear  inferior  fruit.  Budding  and  grafting  may  be 
used,  but  have  little  to  recommend  them,  except  in  ex- 
perimental work,  because  young  shoots  are  thrown  up 
from  the  roots.  Four  different  methods  of  propagation 
are  described  by  Coville,  in  "  Bulletin  334,"  above  cited. 
Each  has  proved  successful,  but  no  one  has  proved  uni- 
formly best  under  all  conditions.  The  methods  are  termed 
"stumping,"  "tubering,"  winter  cuttings  and  root- 
cuttings.  They  will  be  briefly  described,  but  for  more  de- 
tailed directions  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  above  bulletin. 

Stumping. — This  is  considered  the  easiest  method.  At 
any  time  from  late  fall  to  early  spring,  all  or  part  of  the 
stems  of  a  plant  are  cut  off  close  to  the  ground.  A  frame 
is  placed  around  the  stump  and  filled  with  a  mixture  of  2 
to  4  parts  of  sand,  to  1  of  peat,  covering  the  stumps  2  to 
3  inches  deep.  This  must  be  kept  moist  during  summer. 


368 


Bush-Fruits 


The  shoots  which  spring  up  from  these  stumps,  through 
the  sand  and  peat,  develop  the  character  of  root-stocks, 
and  throw  out  roots  abundantly.  They  should  be  left  in 
place  the  following  winter  but  should  be  protected  with 

a  mulch.  Early  the  follow- 
ing spring  the  sand  is  re- 
moved, and  the  shoots  cut 
away  from  the  parent  stump. 
The  tops  are  cut  back  to 
about  three  buds.  A  plant 
thus  treated  is  shown  at 
Fig.  52. 

The  young  plants  are 
placed  in  three-inch  pots  in 
a  mixture  of  two  parts  peat 
to  one  of  sand.  The  pots 
are  then  plunged  in  sand  in 
a  cool  greenhouse  or  cold- 
frame.  The  frame  is  shaded 
with  muslin  and  the  tem- 
perature not  allowed  to  ex- 
ceed 65°  F.  Ventilation 
should  be  limited,  and  water 
Fig.  52.  New  shoots  developed  by  given  only  often  enough  to 

"stumping."  J  & 

keep  the   soil  moist.    New 

root-growth    begins    after   the    first   twig-growth  stops. 
Secondary  twig-growth  indicates  success. 

Tubering. — The  term  "tubering  "  is  applied  to  a  special 
method  of  growing  hardwood  cuttings.  The  simplest 
plan  suggested  is  as  follows.  The  cuttings  are  made  in 
late  fall,  from  unbranched  pieces  of  the  old  wood,  pref- 


Huckleberries  or  Blueberries  369 

erably  that  which  has  grown  in  exposed  situations  and 
well  stored  with  starch.  These  may  vary  in  size  from  one- 
fourth  inch  to  an  inch,  in  diameter,  and  are  cut  3  to  4 
inches  long.  They  are  stored  over  winter  in  boxes  of  clean 
moist  sphagnum  moss,  at  a  temperature  of  about  40°  F. 
Early  in  spring  they 
are  pressed  into  beds 
of  clean  sand,  in  a 
coldframe,  to  about 
the  depth  of  their  own 
thickness.  The  sand 
is  then  covered  with 
a  one-inch  layer  of 
sifted  peat  two  parts, 
and  sand  one  part. 

The  frames  are  shaded  FiS-   53.     "  Tubered  "  cutting  with  young 

shoots  developing. 

by  a  muslin  frame- 
work about  seven  feet  from  the  ground.  No  ventilation 
is  given  until  most  of  the  plants  are  rooted,  about  midsum- 
mer. The  shades  and  sash  are  removed  early  in  October. 
Late  in  autumn  they  are  removed  from  the  frames,  the 
stronger  ones  going  directly  to  field  plantations.  The 
weaker  ones  are  set  in  nursery  rows  for  another  season's 
growth  before  being  planted. 

Shading  the  frames  is  considered  important  in  all 
methods.  Locating  them  on  the  north  side  of  buildings 
may  reduce  the  need  for  shade  but  even  then  it  will  be 
needed  morning  and  afternoon  in  summer,  when  the  sun 
may  reach  them.  Figs.  53  and  54  show  tubered  cuttings 
in  different  stages  of  development. 

Winter   cuttings. — These    are    ordinary    stem-cuttings, 


370 


Bush-Fruits 


made  from  wood  of  the  previous  season's  growth,  cut 
four  or  five  inches  long.  They  may  be  taken  in  the  fall 
and  stored,  or  cut  when  wanted.  They  may  be  started  in 
the  greenhouse  and  transferred  to  the  coldframe  later,  or 

put  in  the  coldframe  at 
first.  The  important 
point  is  to  avoid  high 
temperatures. 

For  the  cutting-bed  a 
one-inch  layer  of  clean 
sphagnum  is  placed  on 
a  good  drainage  founda- 
tion. This  is  covered 
with  three  inches  of  clean 
sand.  The  base  of  the 
cutting  should  reach 
nearly  to  the  sphagnum. 
The  frame  must  be 
shaded  and  the  sash 

Fig.  54.    "Tubered"  cutting  with  shoot   tightly  closed  to  secure  a 

saturated      atmosphere. 

When  the  first  twig-growth  has  been  completed,  the 
bed  is  mulched  with  about  half  an  inch  of  sifted  peat 
two  parts,  and  sand  one  part.  When  the  cuttings 
have  begun  to  root,  which  is  indicated  by  secondary 
twig-growth,  ventilation  is  begun.  This  must  be  very 
slight  at  first,  and  increased  slowly,  through  a  period  of 
several  weeks,  before  full  exposure  is  given.  Young  plants 
are  very  susceptible  to  injury  from  over-ventilation  during 
the  propagating  period.  These  winter  cuttings  are  best 
left  in  the  coldframe  over  winter,  being  mulched  with 


Huckleberries  or  Blueberries  371 

leaves.  In  early  spring  they  are  transferred  to  a  nursery- 
bed  of  peat  and  sand  in  the  open  field.  This  method  of 
propagation  requires  close  attention,  and  not  all  the 
cuttings  can  be  expected  to  succeed.  Young  plants  grown 
from  cuttings  are  shown  at  Plate  XVI. 

Root-cuttings. — Root-cuttings,  three  to  four  inches  long, 
made  from  roots  of  all  sizes,  have  given  excellent  results. 
They  are  started  in  coldframes,  with  the  same  treatment 
given  to  tubered  stem-cuttings. 

After  culture 

All  young  plants,  when  once  rooted,  are  best  exposed  to 
winter  freezing.  Hot  summer  suns  may  injure  the  young 
leaves  and  growing  tips.  Partial  shade  will  obviate  this. 

A  peculiar  habit  of  root-growth  is  found  to  be  charac- 
teristic of  blueberry  plants.  A  knowledge  of  this  is  im- 
portant in  transplanting.  No  root-growth  is  made  in 
spring  until  the  plants  are  in  full  leaf,  are  nearly  through 
flowering,  and  have  made  most  of  their  twig-growth.  All 
this  early  growth  is  made  chiefly  from  the  food  stored  up 
the  preceding  year. 

This  means  that  in  spring  planting  it  is  important, 
either  to  move  all  the  roots,  or  to  cut  back  the  tops 
severely.  With  young,  nursery-grown  plants,  care  will 
secure  the  roots  unharmed.  When  wild  plants  are  to  be 
brought  to  the  garden,  the  tops  are  best  cut  to  stumps 
which  reach  only  two  or  three  inches  above  the  ground 
when  planted.  Such  plants  can  be  divided  when  replant- 
ing, often  affording  a  number  of  stumps  with  roots  at- 
tached. Early  spring  is  the  best  time  for  planting,  when 
plants  are  cut  back  in  this  way. 

With  unpruned  plants,  early  fall  planting  gives  excel- 


372 


Bush-Fruits 


Fig.  55.  Comparative  effects  of  self-  and  cross-pollination. 

lent  results.     This  has  been  found  to  be  an  especially 
favorable  time  for  removing  potted  plants  to  the  field. 

Interpollination  is  an  important  factor  in  fruit  pro- 
duction. This  is  accomplished  chiefly  by  bumblebees 
and  other  wild  bees.  The  corolla  is  too  long  for  the  honey- 


Huckleberries  or  Blueberries  373 

bee.  Self-pollination  gives  inferior  results  at  best;  some 
plants  are  almost  completely, sterile.  Furthermore,  every 
plant  propagated  from  a  parent  plant  by  any  of  the 
methods  indicated  is  essentially  that  same  plant,  so  far  as 
this  factor  is  concerned.  This  means  that  plants  propa- 
gated from  more  than  one  bush  should  be  grown.  When 
we  come  to  have  varieties,  it  will  not  be  wise  to  plant  a 
single  variety  alone.  (See  Fig.  55.) 

For  field  planting,  in  a  commercial  way,  a  distance  of 
eight  feet  apart,  each  way,  is  advised.  As  already  indicated 
growing  the  fruit  for  market  should  only  be  undertaken 
where  naturally  favorable  conditions  prevail.  The  ideal 
soil  is  thought  to  be  a  peat  covering  with  sand  subsoil. 
The  water-table  should  be  at  least  a  foot  below  the  sur- 
face during  the  growing  season.  Summer  fallowing  the 
previous  season,  to  destroy  the  wild  growth,  is  advised 
on  untilled  land.  Surface  cultivation  as  for  other  fruits  is 
to  be  given  after  planting. 

Probable  returns 

The  outcome  of  commercial  huckleberry  culture  is 
yet  to  be  determined.  Young  plants  bear  little  until 
they  are  three  or  four  years  old,  but  are  as  long-lived 
as  apple  trees.  They  will  not  need  replanting  during 
one  man's  •  lifetime,  and  often  reach  a  height  of  six  to 
eight  feet  in  the  open  field.  Coville  cites  an  Indiana 
plantation  which  was  started  in  1889  by  setting  unselected 
wild  plants  in  a  natural  bog.  Records  for  a  period  of  six 
years  show  an  average  gross  return  of  $243.44  an  acre. 
The  average  selling  price  of  the  fruit  was  14  ^  cents  a 
quart.  The  cost  of  picking  was  5  cents  a  quart.  The 


374  Bush-Fruits 

average  profit  to  the  acre,  after  deducting  the  cost  of  care, 
harvesting,  marketing,  interest,  taxes,  depreciation,  and 
so  on  is  placed  at  $116.  With  selected  plants  of  improved 
quality,  the  fruit  output  will  naturally  be  better. 

Home  culture 

It  is  in  the  home-garden,  especially,  that  the  culture 
of  this  fruit  should  be  greatly  increased.  Conditions 
there  will  seldom  be  ideal,  and  special  care  will  be  needed 
to  secure  results.  The  plants  should  be  set  in  large 
holes  or  wide  trenches,  about  a  foot  deep  in  a  mixture 
of  four  parts  peat  or  half-rotted  oak  leaves,  to  one  part 
sand,  which  should  be  well  mixed.  Liberal  dressings  of 
similar  material  applied  to  the  surface  and  worked  in 
with  the  cultivation  should  also  prove  beneficial.  Fre- 
quent repetitions  of  these  surface  applications  will  tend 
to  maintain  the  acid  conditions  which  the  plant  needs.  A 
mulch  of  oak  leaves,  if  it  can  be  held  in  place,  is  useful. 

If  fertilizers  are  needed,  chemicals  which  leave  an  acid 
residue  in  the  soil  should  be  chosen.  Nitrogen  may  be 
obtained  from  sulfate  of  ammonia,  phosphorus  from  acid 
phosphate,  and  potash  from  sulfate  or  muriate.  No  lime 
or  wood  ashes  should  be  allowed  near  huckleberry  plants. 

Varieties 

While  named  varieties  are  not  yet  available,  the 
work  done  at  the  United  States  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture has  shown  much  progress  in  the  development  of 
improved  sorts.  Wild  plants  vary  greatly  in  the  size 
and  character  of  fruit.  Two  distinct  types  of  the  swamp 
blueberry  are  common  in  Rhode  Island. 


Huckleberries  or  Blueberries  375 

By  selecting  the  best  wild  plants  as  a  basis  of  work, 
then  crossing  and  hybridizing  these,  some  fine  sorts  have 
been  developed  in  Coville's  work.  Individual  fruits, 
under  unusual  conditions,  have  even  reached  a  diameter 
of  nearly  three-fourths  of  an  inch.  Hybrids  between 
V actinium  corymbosum  and  V actinium  pennsylvanicum,  the 
low  blueberry,  are  giving  some  promising  results.  A 
hybrid  plant  of  this  parentage,  four  years  old,  is  shown 
at  Plate  XVI. 

The  future  of  this  particular  type  of  huckleberry  or 
blueberry  now  looks  bright.  We  may  hope  to  bring  it  to 
our  gardens  and  enjoy  its  fruits.  The  owner  of  land  which 
is  too  wet  and  sour  for  ordinary  farm  crops  may  find  profit- 
able use  for  such  land  in  the  growing  of  this  crop  in  a  com- 
mercial way. 

Species  involved 

Improvement  work  has  been  confined  to  the  genus 
Vaccinium,  this  being  the  one  most  generally  prized 
and  the  most  promising  for  future  development.  Two 
species  of  Gaylussacia  bear  fruit  of  value,  that  of  the 
common  black  huckleberry,  G.  baccata,  better  known  as 
G.  resinosa,  being  extensively  gathered  for  market. 

The  most  important  difference  between  these  two  genera 
is  that  in  Gaylussacia  the  fruit  is  ten-celled,  each  cell  con- 
taining a  single  seed,  or  properly  a  little  stone,  while  in 
Vaccinium  there  are  several  seeds  in  each  cell,  these  being 
small,  and  the  fruit  forming  a  pulpy  berry.  The  seeds 
of  the  former,  while  less  numerous,  are  far  more  trouble- 
some than  those  of  the  latter.  The  leaves  and  branchlets 
of  Gaylussacia  are  clammy  with  resinous  dots  when  young. 

Many  species  belonging  to  these  two  genera  are  known, 


376  Bush-Fruits 

chiefly  in  America,  but  only  a  few  need  be  considered  here. 
The  following  are  most  important  as  fruit-bearing  plants, 
with  possible  adaptability  to  garden  culture. 

GAYLUSSACIA  FRONDOSA,  Torr.  &  Gray.  Blue  Tangleberry  or 
Dangleberry. 

This  is  a  shrub  growing  from  3  to  5  feet  high,  with  slender,  diver- 
gent branches,  which  in  the  new  growth  are  reddish  yellow,  while 
the  older  wood  is  covered  with  ashy  gray  bark.  Its  leaves  are  pale 
and  glaucous  or  white  beneath.  The  flowers  are  borne  in  long,  loose, 
drooping  racemes.  The  fruit  is  large,  sweet,  and  pleasant,  with  a 
slight  acidity,  dark  blue  with  a  bluish  white  bloom,  and  ripening  late. 

The  species  is  found  along  the  Atlantic  coast  from  New  England 
to  Florida  and  westward  to  Kentucky  and  Louisiana.  In  New 
England  it  is  said  to  occur  only  near  the  coast.  By  some  this  is 
considered  promising  for  cultivation.  It  grows  more  readily  under 
culture  than  the  following  species,  but  seems  to  lack  in  productive- 


GAYLUSSACIA  BACCATA,  K.  Koch.  (Gaylussacia  resinosa,  Torr.  & 
Gray.)  Black  Huckleberry. 

This  is  a  much  branched,  rigid  shrub,  from  1  to  3  feet  high.  Its 
flowers  are  dull,  reddish  yellow,  and  borne  in  short,  one-sided  racemes 
or  clusters.  The  fruit  is  sweet,  crisp  and  firm,  shiny  black,  without 
bloom.  A  white-fruited  variety  is  occasionally  found,  and  others 
are  reported  having  pear-shaped  berries,  bluish  fruit,  or  that  which 
is  covered  with  a  bloom. 

This  species  is  found  in  open  woods,  on  dry,  rocky  hills,  and  in 
swamps,  from  Newfoundland  to  Georgia,  and  westward  to  Minne- 
sota and  the  Saskatchewan.  It  is  the  common  black  huckleberry 
of  the  market,  and  is  well  adapted  to  commercial  purposes,  owing 
to  its  firmness  and  consequent  shipping  qualities.  It  is  said  to  be 
even  more  difficult  to  propagate  and  transplant  than  other  huckle- 
berries. The  flavor  of  the  fruit  is  altogether  different  from  that  of 
the  Vacciniums.  It  possesses  a  strong,  musky,  or  mawkish  twang, 
hard  to  describe.  For  this  reason  it  is  not  well  liked  by  most  persons, 
in  the  fresh  stage.  When  cooked  this  flavor  largely  disappears. 


Huckleberries  or  Blueberries  377 

The  resulting  sauce  is  richer  but  altogether  different  from  that  of  the 
blueberries.  It  is  found  abundantly  along  the  New  England  coast 
but  does  not  appear  to  be  highly  prized.  Late  in  the  season  much 
of  the  fruit  becomes  wormy.  Another  objection  to  the  fruit  of  this 
genus  is  found  in  the  little,  hard,  sharp-edged  nutlets,  which  give 
the  fruit  a  seedy  character.  The  smaller  the  fruit  the  more  notice- 
able this  becomes,  since  there  are  ten  of  these  stone-like  seeds  in 
each  berry. 
VACCINIUM  PENNSYLVANICUM,  Lam.  Low  or  Dwarf  Blueberry. 

This  is  a  low-growing  shrubby  little  plant,  seldom  over  a  foot 
in  height,  with  green,  angular  or  warty  branches.  The  leaves  are 
bristly  serrulate,  smooth  and  shining  on  both  sides,  and  the  flowers 
are  white  or  pale  pink.  The  fruit  is  sweet  and  fine  flavored,  com- 
monly blue  with  a  glaucous  bloom,  though  forms  with  nearly  black 
fruit  sometimes  occur. 

This  is  the  earliest  of  the  huckleberries  to  ripen,  and  one  of  the 
finest.  It  is  not  so  firm  as  the  preceding  species,  but  with  careful 
handling  may  be  carried  long  distances,  and  is  extensively  sold  in 
market.  It  is  found  upon  dry,  rocky  hillsides  and  mountains  from 
New  Jersey  to  Illinois,  and  northward  to  Newfoundland  and  the 
Saskatchewan.  It  has  not  yielded  readily  to  the  demands  of  culti- 
vation. The  best  results  have  ordinarily  come  from  simply  improv- 
ing its  natural  conditions.  A  dwarf  form  of  it,  var.  angustifolium, 
Gray,  occurs  in  New  England  to  Newfoundland. 
VACCINIUM  CANADENSE,  Kalm.  Canadian  Blueberry. 

This  is  a  low  shrub,  1  to  2  feet  high,  with  light  green  wood,  and 
much  resembling  V.  pennsylvanicum.  Its  leaves  are  broader,  entire, 
and  downy  on  both  sides,  the  crowded  branchlets  being  also  downy. 
The  fruit  is  blue-black,  ripening  later  than  that  of  V.  pennsyl- 
vanicum. 

The  species  occurs  in  swamps  and  moist  woods  from  Newfound- 
land to  the  mountains  of  Pennsylvania,  and  westward  to  Minnesota 
and  the  Rocky  Mountains.  It  is  primarily  a  northern  species,  and 
not  common  in  the  United  States  except  in  northern  New  England. 
From  there  and  the  Canadian  provinces  it  is  sent  to  the  Boston 
market  in  considerable  quantities  after  the  home  supply  of  the  pre- 
ceding species  is  exhausted. 


Fig.  56.  High-bush  huckleberry  or  blueberry,  Vaccinium  corymbosum. 


Huckleberries  or  Blueberries  379 

VACCINIUM  VACILLANS,  Kalm.    Low  or  Pale  Blueberry. 

This  is  a  low,  glabrous  shrub,  from  1  to  3  feet  high,  with  yellowish 
green  stem  and  branchlets.  The  leaves  are  smooth  and  very  pale 
and  glaucous,  at  least  on  the  under  side.  The  berries  are  large  and 
sweet,  generally  with  a  blue  bloom,  though  sometimes  black,  ripen- 
ing from  the  last  of  July  to  September.  The  fruit  is  borne  in  clusters 
at  the  end  of  leafless  branches  of  the  previous  season's  growth,  and 
the  plants  are  very  prolific. 

The  species  occurs  chiefly  in  dry  and  sandy  soil,  from  New  Eng- 
land to  Michigan  and  Iowa,  and  southward  to  Missouri  and  North 
Carolina.  Growing  as  it  does  in  dry  soils,  being  a  pretty  little  shrub 
for  ornamental  purposes,  and  a  prolific  bearer,  with  fruit  of  fine 
quality,  it  is  one  of  the  species  which  would  seem  to  be  promising 
for  cultivation,  or  for  use  in  hybridizing  with  other  species. 

VACCINIUM  CORYMBOSUM,  Linn.  Swamp  Blueberry.  High 
Huckleberry.  (Fig.  56.) 

A  tall,  handsome  shrub,  from  4  to  10  feet  high,  with  yellowish 
green  branches  which  turn  to  a  light  gray  with  age,  the  bark  on  old 
stems  becoming  rough  and  peeling  off  in  shreds.  The  leaves  are 
narrow,  mostly  egg-shaped,  either  smooth  or  downy.  The  flowers 
are  large,  and  borne  on  the  extremities  of  the  previous  year's  growth, 
as  in  the  preceding  species.  The  fruit  ripens  from  August  to  the 
latter  part  of  September,  and  is  widely  variable  in  shape,  size,  color 
and  flavor. 

The  species  varies  greatly,  and  several  botanical  varieties  have 
been  described.  It  grows  chiefly  in  swamps  and  moist  woods,  though 
sometimes  found  in  dry,  open  pastures.  It  has  a  wide  distribution, 
occurring  throughout  the  eastern  half  of  North  America,  from  New- 
foundland to  Louisiana.  It  is  the  most  promising  of  all  the  huckle- 
berries for  cultivation.  It  is  the  species  with  which  most  progress 
has  already  been  made  in  the  way  of  propagation  and  culture. 

Insects  attacking  the  huckleberry 

In  Washington  County,  Maine,  is  a  tract  of  country 
comprising  some  two  hundred  fifty  thousand  acres,  known 
as  the  "  Blueberry  Barrens."  It  is  a  region  made  up  of 


380  Bush-Fruits 

level  or  slightly  rolling  land,  interspersed  with  lakes  and 
swamps,  where  the  low  blueberries  spring  up  in  great 
abundance  as  soon  as  the  land  is  burned  over.  The  land 
is  valued  at  about  $50  an  acre  and  the  average  yield  of 
berries  is  about  60  bushels  an  acre.  The  fruit  is  gathered 
with  rakes  similar  to  cranberry  rakes,  a  man  being  able 
to  average  about  three  bushels  per  day.  During  the  pick- 
ing season  whole  families  move  to  the  locality  and  live  in 
tents  while  employed  in  the  berry  fields.  A  number  of 
canneries  are  located  in  the  vicinity  to  which  the  greater 
part  of  the  fruit  goes.  The  land  is  usually  burned  over 
every  third  year.  This  destroys  the  crop  for  that  year 
but  greatly  increases  it  for  the  two  succeeding  years. 

In  this  region  insects  have  become  more  or  less  trouble- 
some. A  study  of  these  enemies  has  been  made  by  Wil- 
liam C.  Woods,  and  his  findings  are  reported  in  "  Bulletin 
No.  244"  of  the  Maine  Experiment  Station,  to  which  the 
reader  is  referred  for  a  full  account  of  this  interesting  in- 
dustry and  details  of  the  insects  found. 

One  of  the  most  important  enemies  is  the  apple-maggot, 
Rhagoletis  pomonella,  Walsh.,  or  a  somewhat  distinct 
strain  of  the  species  which  seems  to  be  found  on  the  blue- 
berry. The  life  history  of  the  insect  appears  to  be  prac- 
tically the  same  as  on  the  apple.  The  insect  has  been  found 
on  different  species,  both  of  Vaccinium  and  Gaylussacia, 
though  apparently  not  in  other  parts  of  the  state.  It  is 
also  found  on  the  wild  haw,  which  it  is  thought  may  have 
been  the  original  host-plant  of  the  insect.  No  means  of 
control  is  suggested  except  systematic  burning,  and  de- 
stroying the  maggots  which  are  found  when  the  berries 
are  winnowed. 


Juneberries  381 

A  leaf-bettle,  Galerucella  decora,  Say,  was  found  to  be 
destructive  to  the  foliage  of  the  low  blueberries.  Spraying 
would  doubtless  control  it  but  is  hardly  feasible  under 
ordinary  conditions. 

Among  other  insects  mentioned,  the  currant  fruit- 
weevil,  Pseudanthonomus  validus,  Dietz.,  is  of  interest. 
This  has  been  reported  as  a  serious  pest  of  the  currant 
in  Montana,  and  is  found  attacking  two  species  of  low 
blueberry  in  this  region  in  Maine.  Several  other  species 
are  also  treated. 


JUNEBERRIES 

The  juneberry  has  received  but  little  attention  in  cul- 
tivation, though  not  from  any  difficulty  in  growing  it, 
as  with  the  huckleberry.  The  greatest  impetus  to  its 
culture  came  with  the  introduction  of  the  variety  known 
as  Success.  This  was  brought  to  notice  by  H.  E.  Van 
Deman,  then  chief  of  the  Division  of  Pomology  of  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture.  It  was  found 
by  him  in  Kansas,1  having  been  brought  from  Illinois, 
where  it  had  been  grown  from  seeds  gathered  in  the  moun- 
tains of  Pennsylvania.  Van  Deman  gave  it  the  name 
Success,  and  began  selling  plants  about  1878.  Some  ten 
years  later  the  stock  was  sold  to  J.  T.  Lovett,  of  New 
Jersey. 

The  juneberry  has  often  been  confused  with  the  huckle- 
berry in  parts  of  the  West.  It  was  grown  for  a  number  of 
years  by  James  Hall,  of  Davenport,  Iowa,  who,  under  the 
name  huckleberry,  recommended  its  extensive  planting 
1  Annals  of  Horticulture,  Bailey,  1891:  51. 


382  Bush-Fruits 

as  especially  adapted  to  that  region.  On  the  strength 
of  these  recommendations  many  wild  blueberry  plants  are 
said  to  have  been  sold  throughout  the  state,  much  to  the 
dissatisfaction  of  the  purchasers.  The  true  huckleberries 
or  blueberries  have  never  succeeded  in  this  region,  and 
only  those  who  were  deceived,  and  got  the  juneberry  in- 
stead, obtained  any  real  value  for  their  investment.  On 
the  strength  of  these  misrepresentations,  the  Iowa  State 
Horticultural  Society  passed  resolutions  of  censure,  cau- 
tioning all  persons  against  buying  or  planting  any  blue- 
berry or  huckleberry  plants.1  The  Massachusetts  Horti- 
cultural Society  awarded  a  silver  medal  to  Benjamin 
G.  Smith  for  introducing  the  dwarf  juneberry  into  that 
state,2  and  it  is  interesting  to  note  that  his  plants  were 
obtained  from  Davenport,  Iowa,  whence  it  was  being  so 
widely  boomed  as  huckleberry  or  blueberry.  The  june- 
berry itself  thrives  well  throughout  the  West,  especially 
the  western  species,  Amelanchier  alnifolia. 

The  future  of  the  juneberry  is  in  doubt.  It  seems  to  be 
making  little  progress  at  present.  Yet  it  thrives  through- 
out the  entire  country,  being  especially  promising  upon 
the  Plains,  where  many  of  our  bush-fruits  do  not  succeed. 
One  point  of  great  importance  is  its  ability  to  endure  late 
spring  frosts.  Of  this  one  grower  says:3  " Frosts  that 
killed  potato  tops  to  the  ground  had  no  effect  in  destroy- 
ing even  a  portion  of  this  wonderful  plant's  product, 
even  though  the  frost  came  as  late  as  the  middle  of  May." 
The  fruit  is  mild,  sweet  and  pleasant.  It  lacks  character 

1  Trans.  Iowa  Hort.  Soc.,  1877:  203. 

2  Gardener's  Monthly,  1878:  306. 

3  Nebr.  State  Hort.  Soc.  Kept.,  1896: 197. 


Juneberries  383 

and  sprightliness  as  a  table  fruit,  but  this  defect  is  readily 
overcome  by  adding  a  few  currants,  cherries  or  goose- 
berries, which  are  available  at  the  same  season  of  the 
year.  To  be  at  its  best  it  should  be  used  when  perfectly 
fresh,  for  it  suffers  much  in  flavor  by  standing.  This  may 
prevent  it  from  becoming  popular  as  a  market  berry. 
In  any  case,  it  ought  to  be  primarily  a  home  berry.  It  is 
so  easily  grown,  and  the  plants  themselves  are  so  attractive 
that  it  may  well  find  place  in  any  home-garden,  however 
small. 

One  grave  obstacle  stands  in  the  way  of  its  successful 
culture.  Every  bird  in  the  region  will  be  there  to  help 
harvest  the  fruit.  Only  two  remedies  are  apparent — 
either  grow  more  Juneberries  than  the  birds  can  hold, 
or  plant  but  few,  in  close  clumps,  and  protect  them  with 
netting.  Benjamin  G.  Smith  reports  1  having  been  able  to 
keep  the  birds  away  by  scarecrows,  which  were  changed 
in  position  two  or  three  times  a  day.  Experience  with 
other  fruit  leads  to  the  conclusion  that  very  lively  scare- 
crows would  be  needed  to  interfere  with  the  birds  of  most 
localities.  In  Europe,  cheap  netting  is  used  for  protecting 
cherries  and  similar  fruits,  and  this  method  could  be 
adopted  for  a  few  clumps  of  Juneberries  with  slight  ex- 
pense. 

The  productiveness  of  the  dwarf  varieties  is  beyond 
dispute.  The  plants  are  covered  with  a  mass  of  fruit  until 
ripe  enough  for  the  birds  to  consider  it  worth  their  atten- 
tion. In  Nebraska  it  ripens  from  June  10  to  July  4,  in 
New  York  somewhat  later.  It  will  thrive  upon  any  soil, 
as  it  is  found  from  the  lowest  swamps  to  the  highest 
1  Gardener's  Monthly,  1878: 306. 


384  Bush-Fruits 

mountain  tops.  When  once  established  it  will  care  for 
itself,  if  necessary,  though  benefited  by  good  cultivation 
and  attention.  It  is  absolutely  hardy,  and  a  plantation 
will  continue  to  thrive  and  bear  fruit  almost  indefinitely. 

The  juneberry  is  said  to  propagate  from  seeds  as  readily 
as  apples.  It  is  more  commonly  multiplied  from  the 
sprouts  which  spring  up  around  the  base  of  the  plants. 
One  Iowa  grower  recommends  root-grafting  it  on  apple 
seedlings.1  It  has  been  recommended  as  a  satisfactory 
stock  upon  which  to  graft  the  pear.2  It  has  also  been  re- 
ported from  Illinois  as  a  particularly  suitable  stock  for  the 
quince,3  causing  the  fruit  to  mature  earlier  and  endure  the 
winter  better. 

Enemies  will  doubtless  appear,  should  the  juneberry 
come  to  be  generally  cultivated.  Already  it  has  been 
noted  4  that  the  plum  curculio  is  frequently  found  among 
the  bushes,  and  many  of  the  fruits  are  stung  by  them. 
The  berries  were  also  found  to  be  injured  by  a  coleopter- 
ous larva,  not  determined. 

The  different  species  are  so  variable  in  the  wild  state 
that  varieties  would  doubtless  multiply  rapidly  were 
they  to  come  into  general  cultivation.  Already  several 
have  been  named.  The  one  known  as  Success,  previously 
mentioned,  is  doubtless  the  most  widely  known. 

The  genus  Amelanchier,  to  which  the  juneberries  be- 
long, is  closely  related  to  the  genus  Pyrus,  which  includes 
the  apple  and  pear.  The  species  are  not  numerous,  and  all 

1  Trans.  Iowa  Hort.  Soc.,  1880: 130. 

2  Gardener's  Monthly,  1861:  229,  300  and  361. 

3  Trans.  Iowa  Hort.  Soc.  1879:  440. 

4  Insect  Life,  3:219. 


Juneberries 


385 


Fig.  57.  Amelanchier  alnifolia. 

are  closely  related.     The  following  are  of  most  interest 
from  a  horticultural  standpoint: 

AMELANCHIER  CANADENSIS,  Medic.    Shad  Bush.    Juneberry. 

This  is  the  best  known  form  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  country. 


386  Bush-Fruits 

It  often  reaches  a  height  of  forty  feet,  with  a  tall  straight  trunk 
and  small  spreading  branches,  forming  a  narrow,  oblong,  round- 
topped  tree.  It  occurs  from  Newfoundland  to  Florida,  west  to 
Louisiana  and  eastern  Nebraska,  and  farther  northward  to  the 
Rocky  Mountains.  Though  a  desirable  ornamental  tree,  its  large 
size  is  against  it  as  a  fruit-bearing  plant.  Many  of  the  trees  growing 
wild  appear  to  be  sterile.  The  hills  are  dotted  with  their  white 
bloom  in  early  springtime,  but  comparatively  few  fruiting  trees  are 
found  in  summer. 
A.  OBLONGIFOLIA,  Roem.  Dwarf  Juneberry. 

This  is  a  low  plant,  from  two  to  five  feet  high,  bearing  smaller 
flowers  than  the  preceding  species.  It  is  found  from  Quebec  and 
New  Brunswick  to  Virginia,  and  west  to  Missouri  and  Minnesota, 
and  is  one  of  the  most  promising  forms  for  cultivation.  The  variety 
known  as  Success  belongs  here. 
A.  BARTRAMIANA,  Roem.  Northern  Dwarf  Juneberry. 

This  is  another  dwarf  form,  two  to  four  feet  high,  found  in  cold 
swamps  and  mountain  bogs  from  New  York  and  Northern  New 
England  northward  to  Labrador  and  Newfoundland.  It  is  highly 
recommended  as  an  ornamental  plant  and  the  fruit  is  said  to  be 
large,  dark  blue-purple,  with  a  heavy  bloom,  often  nearly  twice  as 
long  as  broad,  sweet,  with  a  more  decided  flavor  than  that  of  the 
other  Juneberries. 

A.  ALNIFOLIA,  Nutt.    Western  Service  Berry  or  Shad  Bush.     (Fig. 
57.) 

This  is  a  low  shrub,  usually  only  a  few  feet  high,  though  rarely 
becoming  a  slender  tree.  The  leaves  are  broad,  oval  or  nearly  cir- 
cular in  outline,  and  the  fruit  ripens  from  June  to  September,  accord- 
ing to  location.  It  is  dark  blue,  or  sometimes  nearly  black,  covered 
with  a  glaucous  bloom,  very  sweet  and  juicy,  and  is  said  to  reach 
from  half  an  inch  to  nearly  an  inch  in  diameter.  The  species  is 
widely  distributed  over  the  western  half  of  the  continent,  extending 
eastward  as  far  as  the  western  shores  of  Lake  Superior  and  the 
northern  peninsula  of  Michigan.  It  is  one  of  the  most  promising 
species  as  a  fruit-producing  plant.  Its  great  productiveness  and 
the  large  size  and  good  quality  of  its  fruit  are  likely  to  place  it  in 
the  lead  for  the  western  half  of  the  country,  at  least. 


The  Tree  Cranberry 


387 


Fig.  58.  The  tree  cranberry. 
THE   TREE   CRANBERRY    (Fig.    58) 

The  so-called  tree  cranberry  or  cranberry-tree  is  not  a 
cranberry  in  any  sense  of  the  word.  It  has  received  this 
name  owing  to  a  superficial  resemblance  of  its  fruit  to 
that  of  the  cranberry.  Though  round  and  red  like  -the 
cranberry,  in  structure  and  flavor  it  is  entirely  different. 
The  plant  belongs  to  the  honeysuckle  family,  the  species 


388  Bush-Fruits 

being  Viburnum  Opulus,  Linn.  It  is  a  tall  and  nearly 
smooth  shrub,  with  gray  bark,  scaly  buds  and  large, 
three  to  five-lobed  leaves,  the  lobes  pointed  and  com- 
monly few-toothed.  The  flowers  are  white,  borne  in 
broad,  flat  clusters,  and  are  followed  by  the  bright-colored 
fruit  which  is  carried  on  the  tips  of  the  branches,  well 
above  the  leaves.  The  species  is  much  better  known  in 
the  modified  form  in  which  it  commonly  appears  in  cul- 
tivation, which  is  the  guelder  rose  or  snowball  so  fre- 
quently planted  upon  lawns.  In  that  form  it  has  become 
entirely  sterile,  by  the  culture  adopted  to  bring  out  the 
spherical  head  of  bloom.  In  the  wild  type  only  the  mar- 
ginal florets  are  neutral. 

The  species  is  found  wild  in  the  northern  parts  of 
Europe,  Asia  and  North  Africa,  and  is  in  many  respects 
a  more  desirable  ornamental  plant  than  its  modified  de- 
scendant. Although  pleasing  in  habit  and  foliage,  it  is 
especially  attractive  in  fruit.  About  the  last  of  July  the 
berries  take  on  a  greenish  yellow  or  orange  hue,  tinged 
with  bright  red  on  the  side  toward  the  sun.  From  that 
time  until  spring,  unless  taken  by  the  birds,  which  com- 
monly do  not  molest  it  when  other  food  is  abundant,  the 
fruit  is  always  attractive.  When  ripe  in  autumn  it  be- 
comes a  brilliant  deep  scarlet  and  remains  so  until  severe 
frosts,  which  cause  it  to  become  somewhat  duller,  though 
it  will  remain  bright  all  winter  if  allowed  to  hang.  This 
renders  the  plant  attractive  throughout  the  greater  portion 
of  the  year.  Its  flowers,  too,  are  as  graceful  as  those  of  the 
sterile  form.  The  American  tree  cranberry  is  somewhat 
different  from  the  Old  World  plant,  and  botanists  now 
separate  it  as  Viburnum  americanum. 


The  Barberry  389 

The  plant  deserves  praise  as  an  ornamental,  but  as  a 
fruit-producing  plant  it  is  of  doubtful  value.  The  fruit 
is  very  sour,  somewhat  resembling  the  true  cranberry. 
It  is  used  to  some  extent  as  a  substitute  for  it,  and  makes 
good  sauce  or  jelly,  though  too  astringent  to  suit  some 
palates.  The  large  size  of  its  seeds  is  a  serious  objection 
to  its  use  for  fruit.  These  are  single  hard  stones,  which 
seem  to  make  up  the  greater  part  of  the  fruit.  Except 
for  this  it  might  have  value  in  some  localities.  Its  fruit 
falls  in  much  the  same  class  as  that  of  the  barberry  and 
the  buffalo  berry,  though  not  so  pleasant  as  the  latter. 
Its  name,  tree  cranberry,  is  a  standing  temptation  to 
smooth-tongued  agents  to  recommend  the  plant  as  a  sat- 
isfactory substitute  for  the  cranberry,  suited  to  upland 
soils  and  regions  in  which  the  cranberry  does  not  succeed. 
In  such  cases  it  must  prove  a  disappointment,  though 
worthy  of  praise  for  the  purposes  to  which  it  is  adapted. 
The  plant  is  perfectly  hardy,  so  far  as  cold  is  concerned, 
and  can  be  grown  in  almost  any  soil  or  location.  It  may 
be  propagated  by  layers,  by  hard-wood  cuttings,  or  by 
seeds,  though  the  latter  require  two  years  for  germination. 
The  plant  is  much  subject  to  the  attacks  of  plant-lice, 
which  often  cause  its  leaves  and  young  shoots  to  curl 
and  grow  distorted.  This  seriously  injures  the  appear- 
ance of  the  plant  in  seasons  which  favor  the  spread  of 
these  pests. 

THE   BARBERRY 

Unlike  many  of  the  fruits  which  we  have  been  consider- 
ing, the  barberry  has  once  been  popular  and  has  since 
declined  in  favor.  It  may,  therefore,  be  appropriate  to 


390  Bush-Fruits 

substitute  for  a  modern  description  of  the  plant  that  given 
by  Gerarde  in  1597.  He  says:  "The  barberry  plant  is  an 
high  shrub  or  bush,  having  many  young  straight  shoots 
and  branches  very  full  of  white  prickly  thorns,  the  rind 
whereof  is  smooth  and  thin,  the  wood  itself  yellow:  the 
leaves  are  long,  very  greene,  sleightly  nicked  about  the 
edges,  and  of  a  soure  taste:  the  flours  be  yellow,  standing 
in  clusters  upon  long  stems:  in  their  places  come  up  long 
berries,  slender,  red  when  they  be  ripe,  with  a  little  hard 
kernell  or  stone  within,  of  a  soure  and  sharp  taste:  the 
root  is  yellow,  disperseth  it  self  far  abroad,  and  is  of  a 
wooddy  substance.  Wee  have  in  our  London  gardens 
another  sort,  whose  fruit  is  like  in  form  and  substance, 
but  one  berry  is  as  big  as  three  of  the  common  kinde, 
wherein  consisteth  the  difference.  We  have  likewise 
another  without  any  stone,  the  fruit  is  like  the  rest  of  the 
Barberries  both  in  substance  and  taste." 

In  regard  to  its  distribution,  Gerarde  says:  "The  bar- 
berry bush  grows  of  it  selfe  in  untoiled  places  and  desart 
grounds,  in  woods  and  the  borders  of  fields,  especially 
about  a  gentlemans  house  called  Mr.  Monke,  at  a  village 
called  Tver  two  miles  from  Colebrooke,  where  most  of  the 
hedges  are  nothing  else  but  Barberry  bushes.  They  are 
planted  in  most  of  our  English  gardens." 

Among  "The  Vertues"  ascribed  to  the  plant,  the  fol- 
lowing are  of  special  interest.  "The  leaves  are  used  of 
divers  to  season  meat  with,  and  instead  of  a  sallad,  as  be 
those  of  Sorrell."  After  enumerating  various  medicinal 
"vertues"  he  adds:  "A  conserve  made  of  the  fruit  and 
sugar  performeth  all.  those  things  before  remembered, 
&  with  better  force  and  successe." 


The  Barberry  391 

Phillips,  writing  in  1822,1  quotes  from  another  author  as 
follows:  " Barberries  are  of  an  agreeable,  cooling,  astrin- 
gent taste,  which  creates  appetite."  He  further  says: 
"Pickled  barberries  make  a  handsome  garnish  for  all 
white  dishes,  where  acids  can  be  introduced:  this  fruit  is 
also  used  for  making  syrup,  lozenges,  &c.  We  have  now 
several  varieties  of  barberry-shrub  cultivated  in  England, 
one  of  which  was  brought  from  Candia  in  1759,  and  an- 
other from  Siberia  in  1790,  but  it  possesses  no  advantage 
over  our  native  kind  of  this  fruit." 

This  common  barberry  of  Europe,  Berberis  vulgaris, 
has  become  naturalized  in  New  England  and  westward, 
and  is  more  or  less  widely  planted  elsewhere.  Downing 
gives  it  a  brief  notice  2  and  Fuller 3  enters  into  a  somewhat 
extended  discussion  of  it,  mentioning  a  number  of  species 
and  varieties. 

It  is  chiefly  planted  for  ornament,  rather  than  fruit, 
and  for  this  purpose  the  purple-leaved  species,  Berberis 
Thunbergii,  known  as  the  Japanese  barberry,  which  has  in- 
ferior fruit,  is  generally  preferred. 

Downing  says  that  "The  barberry  is  too  acid  to  eat, 
but  it  makes  an  agreeable  preserve  and  jelly,  and  an 
ornamental  pickle  for  garnishing  some  dishes."  It  comes 
into  use  later  than  the  currant  and  probably  fills  about  the 
same  place  that  the  buffalo  berry  might,  were  that  more 
generally  cultivated.  Hoskins,  of  Vermont,  who  had 
both  growing,  reported  it  far  more  productive  than  the 
buffalo  berry,  adding  that  although  his  plants  were  set 

1  Pomarium  Britanicum,  p.  62. 

2  Fruits  and  Fruit  Trees  of  Amer.,  p.  442. 

3  Small-Fruit  Culturist,  p.  20. 


392  Bush-Fruits 

on  the  lawn  for  ornament,  a  good  market  had  been  found 
for  the  fruit. 

Doubtless  the  barberry  would  make  good  jelly,  but 
so  do  the  apple  and  the  currant,  which  are  more  easily 
prepared.  The  Japanese  quince  has  even  more  claim  to 
merit  as  a  fruit  bearing  ornamental  than  have  the  vibur- 
num and  the  barberry. 

Barberries  may  be  propagated  by  seeds,  which  should 
be  sown  or  stratified  in  the  fall,  or  by  separating  the 
suckers  which  spring  up  about  the  main  stem.  They  may 
also  be  grown  from  cuttings  of  one  or  two-year-old  wood, 
taken  in  the  fall,  or  treated  like  currant  and  gooseberry 
cuttings,  though  they  do  not  root  so  readily  as  these  plants. 

The  merits  of  the  barberry  as  an  ornamental  plant 
need  not  be  further  discussed,  but  as  a  fruit-producing 
plant  it  may  teach  a  lesson.  We  talk  much  of  the  im- 
provement of  wild  fruits,  and  are  almost  led  to  believe 
that  we  can  take  anything  that  is  edible,  no  matter  how 
small,  hard,  sour,  puckery  or  thorny  it  may  be,  and  by 
careful  selection  and  hybridizing,  produce  from  it  a  fruit 
which  shall  delight  the  taste  and  swell  the  purse  of  coming 
generations.  Does  not  the  history  of  the  barberry  suggest 
that,  after  all,  there  may  be  some  things  not  worth  im- 
proving? 

THE   SAND-CHERRY 

Although  its  relationships  might  more  naturally  classify 
it  among  the  stone-fruits,  the  western  sand-cherry  may 
well  be  mentioned  in  the  discussion  of  miscellaneous 
bush-fruits.  This  plant  is  known  botanically  as  Prunus 


The  Sand-cherry  393 

Besseyi,  Bailey.1  It  is  a  graceful,  somewhat  spreading 
shrub,  3  to  4  feet  high,  with  slender,  ascending  or  slightly 
drooping  branches.  At  flowering  time  the  leaves  are 
small,  narrowly  oblanceolate,  and  slightly  whitened  be- 
neath, but  at  maturity  they  become  oval  or  elliptic,  very 
bright  and  shining  on  both  sides.  The  flowers  are  borne 
in  axillary  clusters  all  along  the  younger  branches,  so 
that  at  blossoming  time  these  are  one  mass  of  bloom.  The 
fruit  ranges  from  three-eighths  to  five-eighths  of  an  inch 
in  diameter,  and  is  usually  very  dark  purple  or  blackish 
in  color.  In  flavor  it  resembles  the  improved  forms  of  the 
eastern  choke  cherry,  Prunus  virginiana,  occasionally 
found  in  cultivation,  but  is  larger. 

The  species  is  found  wild  from  Manitoba  to  Kansas 
and  westward  to  the  mountains  of  Colorado  and  Utah. 
Its  value  as  a  fruit-plant  has  been  urged  from  time  to 
time,  and  it  was  introduced  from  Colorado  as  the  improved 
dwarf  Rocky  Mountain  cherry.  Plants  received  under 
this  name  had  been  growing  in  the  grounds  of  the  Ne- 
braska Experiment  Station  for  several  years,  and  although 
white  with  blossoms  in  springtime,  none  of  the  fruit  ma- 
tured until  wild  plants  were  set  in  the  same  garden,  prob- 
ably owing  to  a  lack  of  proper  fecundation. 

Similar  lack  of  fruitfulness  sometimes  occurs  when  wild 
plants  are  removed  to  the  garden,  though  as  a  rule  they 
are  immensely  productive.  Wild  plants  set  in  the  spring 
of  1895  were  loaded  with  fruit  in  1897.  The  size  varies 
much  on  different  plants,  showing  abundant  opportunity 
for  selection.  It  ripens  after  other  cherries,  from  the 

1  For  a  fuller  account  of  the  species,  see  Cornell  University  Ex- 
periment Station  Bulletin,  38:  58-65,  and  70:  260-262. 


394  Bush-Fruits 

middle  to  the  last  of  July,  in  Nebraska.  The  largest 
fruits  are  about  equal  in  size  to  the  Early  Richmond  and 
English  Morello,  as  grown  there.  Although  somewhat 
astringent,  it  is  rather  pleasant  to  eat  out  of  hand.  It 
should  be  left  until  fully  ripe,  for  this  astringency  is  then 
less  noticeable.  Any  eastern  housewife  who  has  known 
the  value  of  the  better  forms  of  the  eastern  choke-cherry, 
though  such  are  few,  for  that  species  is  little  known  in 
cultivation,  will  be  able  to  appreciate  the  merits  of  the 
sand-cherry  as  a  fruit.  Many  western  housewives  know 
it  already.  It  makes  excellent  sauce  and  admirable  jelly, 
and  is,  no  doubt,  equally  good  for  pies. 

Those  familiar  with  the  cultivated  choke-cherry  find 
that  when  its  fruits  are  fully  ripe  their  astringency  may 
be  almost  wholly  removed  by  rolling  them  in  a  sack  or 
shaking  them  in  a  closed  dish.  When  so  treated  they 
make  an  excellent  dish,  eaten  raw  with  sugar  and  cream. 
A  similar  treatment  might  improve  the  sand-cherry. 

Whatever  value  the  sand-cherry  may  have  as  a  fruit- 
producing  plant  in  the  future  pomology  of  the  country, 
its  position  as  an  ornamental  shrub  is  assured.  There  is 
no  shrub  more  useful  for  ornamental  planting  on  the 
Plains  than  this.  It  is  perfectly  hardy,  well  adapted  to 
the  region,  and  is  a  rapid  and  vigorous  grower. 

As  a  low-growing  shrub,  or  as  a  foreground  for  larger 
groups,  it  can  hardly  be  surpassed.  In  the  plantings  on 
the  campus  of  the  University  of  Nebraska,  it  has  been 
used  more  extensively  than  anything  else. 

The  broad-leaved  evergreens,  such  as  rhododendrons, 
mahonias  and  kalmias,  do  not  succeed  in  the  dry  and 
trying  climate  of  the  Plains,  but  this  plant  is  a  very  satis- 


The  Sand-cherry  395 

factory  substitute  during  more  than  half  the  year.  It  is 
one  of  the  first  to  awaken  in  spring  and  one  of  the  last  to 
hold  its  leaves  in  the  fall,  being  unharmed  by  the  first 
frosts,  which  ruin  the  effect  of  many  ornamental  shrubs. 
Its  bright,  clean,  glossy  foliage  closely  approaches  that 
of  the  broad-leaved  evergreens  in  effect.  It  has  also  the 
very  desirable  quality  of  presenting  beautiful  autumn 
tints,  as  a  parting  picture  to  be  held  in  remembrance 
during  the  dreary  days  of  winter,  a  quality  all  too  rare 
among  the  plants  of  the  Plains,  but  one  which  is  fully 
appreciated  by  all  who  recall  the  flaming  hillsides  of  an 
eastern  October  day. 


INDEX 


Acrostalagmus  caulophagus,  257. 

After  culture,  371. 

Agrilus,  red-necked,  239. 

Agrilus  ruficollis,  239. 

Amelanchier  alnifolia,  386. 

A.  Bartramiana,  386. 

A.  canadensis,  385. 

A.  oblongifolia,  386. 

American  black  currant,  314. 

American  raspberry  beetle,  238. 

Anthonomus  signatus,  244. 

Anthracnose,  groselle,  350. 

Anthracnose,  raspberry,  251. 

Apple-maggot  on  blueberries, 
380. 

Apron  for  horse,  17. 

Armillaria  mellea,  262. 

Aspidiotus  juglans-regice,  347. 

Aspidiotus.  perniciosus,  336. 

Autumn  fruiting  of  red  rasp- 
berries, 51. 

Bacterium  tumefadens,  259. 
Bailey,  quoted,  22,  24. 
Barberry,  389. 

—  Gerarde's  description,  390. 
—  propagation,  392. 
Bembecia  marginata,  237. 
Berberis  Thunbergii,  391. 
Berberis  vulgaris,  391. 
Berry  harvester,  74. 


Blackberries,  88;  acreage,  88; 
botanical  derivation,  204;  can- 
ning, 104;  cost  of  production, 
113;  drought  and,  107;  drying, 
104;  duration  of  plantations, 
109;  evergreen,  102,  117;  fer- 
tilizers, 89;  hardiness,  110; 
harvesting,  102;  marketing, 
102;  medicinal  qualities,  105; 
mulching,  98;  planting,  94; 
profits,  113;  propagation,  91; 
pruning,  100;  recommended 
varieties,  231;  removing  the 
plants,  109;  soil,  88;  tillage, 
97;  trellising,  101;  yields,  111; 
uses,  103. 

Blackberries,  varieties,  203. 

Blackberries,  and  dewberries, 
varieties,  alphabetical  list,  214; 
mentioned  elsewhere  than  in 
alphabetical  list:  Ancient  Bri- 
ton, 232;  Atlantic,  216;  Aus- 
tin's Improved,  225;  Child's 
Tree,  229;  Climbing,  221; 
Cook's  Hardy,  231;  CrandaU, 
229;  Eldorado,  232;  Erie,  232; 
Ewing's  Wonder,  216;  Hima- 
laya, 118;  Improved  High 
Bush,  217;  Loganberry,  232; 
Lucretia,  232,  Figs.  122,  123; 
Mammoth,  118,  132,  232; 


397 


398 


Index 


Mayes,  232;  Mercereau,  232; 
Orange's  Crystal,  217;  Oregon 
Climbing,  144;  Oregon  Ever- 
green, 144;  Parsley-leaved, 
144;  Sandwich  Island,  144; 
Snyder,  231;  Star,  216;  Tay- 
lor, 232;  Thompson's  Early 
Mammoth,  225;  Ward,  232; 
Wonder,  216. 

Blackberry,  Cut-leaved,  144. 

Blackberry,  future,  206. 

-  history,  206. 

—  leaf -miner,  247. 

—  mistletoe,  235. 

-  psyllid,  234. 

—  wine,  105. 

Black  currant,  American,  314. 
Black  currants,  280. 

—  varieties,  312. 
Black  huckleberry,  376. 
Black  raspberries,  60. 

—  analysis  of,  64. 

—  anthracnose,  68. 

—  batting,  73. 

—  botanical  characters,  148. 

—  clearing  the  ground,  83. 

—  cutting  back  young  plants,  67. 

—  diseases,  influence  of  pruning 

on,  72. 

—  distance  for  planting,  68. 

—  drying  out  of  doors,  76. 

—  drying  under  glass,  77. 

—  drying,  western  method  of,  81. 

—  drying  with  evaporators,  78. 

—  duration  of  plantations,  82. 

—  fertilizers,  62. 

—  hardiness,  84. 


Black  raspberries,  harvesting,  73. 

—  history,  148. 

—  location,  61. 

—  marketing,  82. 

—  planting,  66. 

—  pinching  back,  70. 

—  profits,  86. 

—  propagation,  64. 
—  pruning,  70. 

—  recommended  varieties,  165. 

—  site,  61. 

—  soil,  60. 

—  soils,  influence  on  yields,  61. 

—  tillage,  69. 

—  tipping,  71. 

—  tools  for  layering  tips,  65. 

—  varieties,  150. 

—  yields,  84. 

—  yields  of  dried  fruit,  85. 
Blueberries,  361. 
Blueberry  barrens,  379. 
Blueberry,  Canadian,  377. 

—  dwarf,  377. 

—  low,  377,  379. 

—  pale,  379. 
—  swamp,  379. 

Blue-stem,  black  raspberry,  257. 
Borer,  American  currant,  341. 
Borer,  imported  currant,  338. 
Botany  of  the  blackberries,  204. 

dewberries,  210. 

black  raspberries,  148. 

currants,  299. 

gooseberries,  316. 

huckleberries,  375. 

red    and    hybrid    rasp- 
berries, 165. 


Index 


399 


Botryosphceria  Ribis,  341,  351. 
Bramble  crown-borer,  237. 
Bramble  diseases,  250. 
Bramble  flea-louse,  234. 
Bramble  insects,  233. 
Brambles,     double    white    and 

pink,  145. 

Brambles,  miscellaneous,  134. 
Breeding  raspberries,  38. 
Brinckle,  Wm.  D.,  174. 
Bud-moth,  236. 
Buffalo  berry,  355. 

—  history,  356. 

—  propagation,  357. 

—  sex  of  plants,  357. 
Buffalo  currant,  314. 
Bush-fruits,    position    in    com- 
mercial field,  2. 

Byturus  unicolor,  238. 

CcBoma  inter stitiale,  250. 
Cceoma  nitens,  251. 
Cane-blight,  currant,  351. 
Cane-blight,  raspberry,  254. 
Cane-borer,  raspberry,  243. 
Cane-borer,  red-necked,  239. 
Cane-maggot,  raspberry,  238. 
Carriers,  picking,  32. 
Census  statistics,  2. 
Chinese  raspberry,  137,  141. 
Cluster-cup,  gooseberry,  353. 
Cold-storage,  33. 
Corimelcena  pulicaria,  249. 
Cost  of  producing  blackberries, 

113. 

Cover-crops,  6,  99. 
Coville  quoted,  366. 


Cranberry,  tree,  387. 
Cronartium  ribicola,  352. 
Crossing  berries,  34. 
Crown-borer,  bramble,  237. 
Crown-gall,  259. 
Cultivation,  14. 
Currant  borer,  American,  341. 
-  imported,  338. 

-  Buffalo,  314. 

—  cane-blight,  351. 

—  felt-rust,  352. 

-  fruit-fly,  dark,  341. 
—  yellow,  340. 

-  fruit-weevil,  381. 

—  Golden,  314. 

—  history,  302. 

—  insects,  334. 

-  leaf-spot,  351. 

—  plant-louse,  335. 

—  seedlings,  behavior  of,  303. 

—  stem-girdler,  345. 

—  worm,  green,  345. 
—  imported,  342. 

Currants,  263. 

—  area  of,  264. 

-  black,  280. 

—  black,  varieties,  312. 

—  durations  of  plantations,  277. 

—  fertilizers,  266. 

—  gathering,  275. 

—  hardiness,  278. 

—  market  for,  264. 

—  marketing,  275. 

—  ornamental,  331. 

—  picking,  275. 

—  planting,  270. 

—  profits,  280. 


400 


Index 


Currants,  propagation,  267. 

—  pruning,  272. 

—  recommended  varieties,  315. 

—  soil  and  location,  265. 

—  tillage,  271. 

—  uses,  276. 

—  varieties,  299. 

—  varieties,  alphabetical  list  of 
black,  312;  varieties,   alpha- 
betical list  of  red  and  white, 
304;  varieties  mentioned  else- 
where    than     alphabetically : 
BeUe     de     St.     Giles,     309; 
Bertin    No.    9,    309;    Black 
English,  313;  Caucasian,  310; 
Chautauqua,     315;    Chenon- 
ceaux,     309;     Cherry,     314; 
Clarke's  Sweet,  310;  Climb- 
ing,  305;   Fay,   315;   Fertile, 
309;    Fertile    d'Angers,    310; 
Fertile  d'Angleterre,  309;  Fer- 
tile de  Bertin,  309;  Fertile  de 
Palluau,    308,    309;    Golden, 
314;    Goliath,     310;    Green- 
fruited,    313;    Groseillier,    a 
Fruit  Couleur  de  Chair,  304; 
Groseillier    Rouge    a    Grosse 
Fruit,  309;  Grosse  Rouge  de 
Boulogne,     309;    Hative    de 
Bertin,   307,   309;   Houghton 
Castle,  310;  Imperial  Blanc, 
310;    Imperiale    Jaune,    307; 
Imperiale    Rouge,    307;    Im- 
perial White,  310;  La  Caucase, 
310;  La  Fertile,  307;  La  Ha- 
tive, 309;  Large-Bunched  Red, 
309;  Long-Bunched  Holland, 


307;  Long-Bunched  Red,  307, 
309;  Macrocarpa,  310;  May's 
Victoria,  307,  310;  Morgan's 
Red,  309;  Morgan's  White, 
310;  Ogden's  Black  Grape, 
312;  Pheasant's  Eye,  304; 
Prince  Albert,  315;  Prince  of 
Wales,  315;  Queen  Victoria, 
309;  Raby  Castle,  307,  310; 
Red  Dutch,  Long-Bunched, 
307;  Red  Grape,  309,  310; 
Red  Provence,  306;  Reeves' 
White,  310;  Russian  Green, 
313;  Short-Bunched  Red,  307; 
Silver  Striped,  309;  Versailles, 
310;  Victoria,  315;  White 
Antwerp,  310;  White  Clinton, 
310;  White  Crystal,  310; 
White  Grape,  215;  White 
Holland,  310;  White  Imperial, 
307,  315;  White  Leghorn,  310; 
White  Pearl,  310;  Wilder, 
315;  Wilmot's  Red  Grape,  310. 

Currants,  yield,  279. 

Cylindrosporium  RuH,  257. 

Cymatophora  riberearia,  339. 

Dangleberry,  376. 
Dasyneura  grossularice,  340. 
Dewberries,  119,  203,  209. 

—  botanical  derivation,  210. 

—  duration  of  plantations,  129. 

—  fertilizers,  124;. 

—  future,  120. 

—  hardiness,  130. 
— •  harvesting,  129. 

—  history,  119. 


Index 


401 


Dewberries,   killing  the   plants, 
129. 

—  location,  124. 

—  marketing,  129. 

—  planting,  125. 

—  profits,  131. 

—  propagation,  125. 

—  pruning,  127. 

—  recommended    varieties, 

231. 

—  soil,  124. 

—  tiUage,  126. 

—  training,  127. 

—  varieties,  alphabetical  list  of, 

214. 

—  western,  131. 

—  yield,  130. 

Diseases  of  brambles,  250. 

—  groselles,  348. 
Distance  for  planting,  10. 
Dodoen,  quoted,  171,  207. 
Double-blossom,  258. 
Double  pink  bramble,  145. 
Double  white  bramble,  145. 
Downing  quoted,  391. 
Drought,    lessening    effects  of, 
107. 

—  resistance,  6. 
Drying  blackberries,  104. 
Drying  black-caps,  70. 
Duration  of  plantations,  black- 
berry, 109. 

— • black-cap,  82. 

•  —  currant,  277. 

dewberry,  129. 

gooseberry,  294. 

red  raspberry,  54. 


Elaeagnus  edulis,  361. 
E.  longipes,  361. 

—  mtdtiflorus,  359. 

—  pungens,  361. 

—  umbellatus,  361. 
English  gooseberries,  297. 
Epochra  canadensis,  340. 
Evaporating  black-caps,  78. 

—  purple-cane  raspberries,  54. 

—  red  raspberries,  53. 
Evaporators,  78. 

Evergreen  blackberries,  102,  117. 
Exartema  permundanum,  249. 
Exposure  for  red  raspberries,  42. 

Felt-rust,  currant,  352. 

Fertilizers,  8. 

Fertilizers  for  blackberries,  89. 

black-caps,  62. 

currants,  266. 

dewberries,  124. 

gooseberries,  284. 

red  raspberries,  43. 

Forcing  bush-fruits,  28. 
Four-lined  leaf-bug,  334. 
Fruit-fly,  dark  currant,  341. 
— ,  yellow  currant,  340. 
Fruit-weevil,  currant,  381. 
Fruit-worm,  gooseberry,  337. 
Furrows  for  planting,  11. 
Fusarium  rvhi,  258. 
Future  of  the  blackberry,  206. 
dewberry,  120. 

Gakrucella  decora,  381. 
Gaylussacia,  375. 
Gaylussacia  baccata,  376. 


402 


Index 


Gaylussacia  frondosa,  376. 
Geometer,  raspberry,  248. 
Gerarde  quoted,  318,  390. 
Gerarde's  picture  of  raspberry, 

173. 

Giapt  root-borer,  249. 
Gloesporium  Venetum,  251. 
Golden  currant,  314. 
Gooseberries,  282. 

—  American  type,  318. 

—  area  of,  282. 

—  duration  of  plantations,  294. 

—  English,  297. 

—  European  type,  317. 

—  fertilizers,  284. 

—  future,  318. 

—  gathering,  291. 

—  grafting,  287. 

—  hardiness,  295. 

—  history,  318. 

—  location,  283. 

—  marketing,  291. 

—  mulching,  289. 

—  ornamental,  331. 

—  picking,  291. 

—  planting,  288. 

—  profits,  296. 

—  propagation,  284. 

—  pruning,  289. 

—  recommended  varieties,  331. 

—  soil,  283. 

—  tillage,  288. 

—  training,  291. 

—  uses.  293. 

—  varieties,  316. 

—  varieties,  alphabetical  list,  321 ; 
mentioned  elsewhere  than 


in  alphabetical  list:  American 
Cluster,  326;  American  Red, 
326;  American  Red  Jacket, 
331;  American  Seedling,  326; 
Aston  Seedling,  328;  Chautau- 
qua,  331;  Downing,  331; 
Dutch  Joe,  326;  Engle's  Yel- 
low, 326;  Houghton,  320; 
Industry,  331;  Ohio  Prolific, 
326;  Ohio  Seedling,  326;  Poor- 
man,  331;  Robert's  Sweet- 
water,  326;  St.  Clair,  326; 
Whinham's  Industry,  324. 

—  varieties,  recommended,  331. 

—  yield,  295. 
Gooseberry  cluster-cup,  353. 

—  fruit-worm,  337. 

—  future  of,  318. 

—  history,  318. 

—  insects,  334. 

—  midge,  340. 

—  mildew,  296,  348. 

—  name,  derivation,  319. 

—  span-worm,  339. 
Goumi,  359. 
Gouty-gall  beetle,  239. 
Grafting  gooseberries,  287. 
Groselle  diseases,  348. 

—  insects,  334. 

—  stem-miner,  346. 
Groselles,  263. 
Groselles,  ornamental,  331. 
Gymnonychus    appendiculatits, 

345. 

Hardiness,  20. 

Hardiness  of  blackberries,  110. 


Index 


403 


Hardiness  of  black-caps,  84. 

currants,  278. 

dewberries,  130. 

gooseberries,  295. 

red  raspberries,  56. 

Hartigia,  abdominalis,  247. 
Harvester,  berry,  74. 
Harvesting  blackberries,  102. 

—  black-caps,  73. 

—  dewberries,  129. 

—  red  raspberries,  53. 
Heeling-in,  11. 
Herstine,  David  W.,  175. 
History  of  the  blackberry,  206. 

black-cap,  148. 

currant,  302. 

dewberry,  119. 

gooseberry,  318. 

red  raspberries,  170. 

Horntail,  raspberry,  247. 
Huckleberries,  361. 

—  botanical  derivation,  362. 

—  commercial  importance,  363. 

—  fertilizers,  374. 

—  history  in  cultivation,  364. 

—  hybrids,  375. 

—  insects,  379. 

—  interpollination,  372. 

—  nomenclature,  361. 

—  planting,  371,  373. 

—  propagation,  367. 

—  returns,  probable,  373. 

—  root-cuttings,  371. 

—  root-fungus,  365. 

—  root-growth,  371. 

—  soil  mixture,  366. 

—  soil  reaction  demanded,  365. 


Huckleberries,  species  involved, 
375. 

—  stumping,  367. 

—  tubering,  368. 

—  varieties,  374. 

—  winter  cuttings,  369. 
Huckleberry,  black,  376. 

—  high,  379. 
Humus,  importance,  6. 
Hybrid  raspberries,  165. 

alphabetical    list    of    va- 
rieties, 176. 
Hybrid  reds,  58. 
Hybrids,  Rubus,  39. 

Implements,  pruning,  18. 
Individuality  of  plant,  10. 
Insects  affecting  the  brambles, 

233. 
groselles,  334. 

—  —  —  huckleberry,  379. 
Intercropping,  13. 
Intercrops,  97. 

Intermingling  varieties  of  black- 
berries, 96. 

dewberries,  126. 

Janus  integer,  345. 
Juneberries,  381. 

—  bird  depredations,  383. 

—  enemies,  384. 

—  fruit,  382. 

—  productiveness,  383. 

—  propagation,  384. 
Juneberry,  385. 

—  dwarf,  386. 

—  northern  dwarf,  386. 


404 


Index 


Juneberry,  success,  381. 
Juneberry  vs.  huckleberry,  381. 

Killing  out  dewberries,  129. 
Kirkpatrick  quoted,  22. 
Kuehneola  uridinis,  258. 

Laying-down  canes,  21. 
Leaf-beetle  on  blueberries,  381. 
Leaf-miner,  blackberry,  247. 
Leaf-roller,  raspberry,  249. 
Leaf-rusts,  258. 
Leaf-spot,  currant,  351. 
Leaf -spots,  257. 
Lepargyrcea  argentea,  355. 
Leptosphceria  coniothyriwn,  254. 
Location,  3.' 

—  for  black-caps,  61. 

currants,  265. 

dewberries,  124. 

—  —  gooseberries,  283. 

red  raspberries,  42. 

Loganberry,  132. 
Lycia  cognataria,  347. 
Lygus  pratensis,  248. 

Macrodactylus  subspinosus,  241. 
Maine,  blueberries  in,  379. 
Marketing,  31. 

—  blackberries,  102. 

—  black-caps,  82. 

—  currants,  264. 

—  dewberries,  129. 

—  gooseberries,  291. 

—  red  raspberries,  53. 
Marking  the  field,  11. 
Maturity  of  cane,  14. 


Mayberry,  134. 
Medullary  spots,  347. 
Metallus  rubi,  247. 
Midge,  gooseberry,  340. 
Mildew,  gooseberry,  296,  348. 
Mistletoe,  blackberry,  235. 
Monophadnus  rubi,  245. 
Mosaic,  raspberry,  261. 
Mulching,  15. 
Mulching  blackberries,  98. 
Muzzle  for  horse,  17. 
Mycosphcerella,  riibina,  256. 
Mysus  ribis,  335. 

Negro-bug,  249. 

New  York  Expt.  Station,  rasp- 
berry breeding,  38. 

Oberea  bimaculata,  243. 
(Ecanthus  nigricornis,  233. 
Opostega  nonstrigella,  346. 
Oriental  raspberries,  134. 
Ornamental  brambles,  138. 

—  groselles,  331. 

Packages,  31. 

Pamphilius,  Fletcheri,  247. 

Pedigree  plants,  10. 

Pepper  and  salt  currant-moth, 

347. 

Phillips  quoted,  391. 
Phorbia  rubivora,  238. 
Phragmidium,  258. 
Picking,  29. 

—  currants,  275. 

—  gooseberries,  291. 
Picking-stands,  32. 


Index 


405 


Planting,  9. 

—  blackberries,  94. 
-  black-caps,  66. 

—  currants,  270. 

—  dewberries,  125. 

—  gooseberries,  288. 

—  red  raspberries,  46. 
Plant-louse,  currant,  335. 
Pliny  quoted,  206. 
Poecilocapsus  lineatus,  334. 
Pollination   of   red   raspberries, 

47. 

Prionus  laticollis,  249. 
Profits  from  blackberries,  113. 

—  black-caps,  86. 

—  currants,  280. 

—  dewberries,  131. 

—  gooseberries,  296. 

—  red  raspberries,  58. 
Propagation,  26. 
Propagation  of  blackberries,  91. 
black-caps,  64. 

currants,  267. 

dewberries,  125. 

gooseberries,  285. 

red  raspberries,  45. 

Pruning,  17. 

Pruning  blackberries,  100. 

—  black-caps,  70. 

—  currants,  272. 

—  dewberries,  127. 

—  gooseberries,  288. 

—  red  raspberries,  48. 
Pruning  implements,  18. 
Prunus  Besseyi,  393. 
Psenocerus  supernotatus,  341. 
Pseudanthonomus  validus,  381. 


Pseudopeziza  Ribis,  350. 

Psyllid,  blackberry,  234. 

Pteronus  ribesii,  342. 

Puccinia  Peckiana,  251. 

Pucdnia  ribes-caricis,  353. 

Purple-cane  raspberries,  59, 
168. 

Purple-cane  raspberries,  evap- 
orating, 54. 

Purple-flowering  raspberry,  138. 

Rake  for  gathering  prunings,  18. 
Raspberries,     black,     varieties, 
alphabetical  list,  150. 

botanical  characters,  158. 

history,  148. 

—  oriental,  134. 

—  purple-cane,  168. 

—  red,  41. 

botanical  characters,  165. 

history,  170. 

—  varieties,  147. 

red  and  hybrid,  alphabet- 
ical list,  176. 

mentioned  elsewhere  than 

in  alphabetical  list:  Abel, 
185;  Alden,  160;  Allen,  183, 
195;  Amazon,  184;  American 
Improved,  152;  American  Red 
Cane,  195;  Autumn  black 
raspberry,  158;  Baldwin's 
Choice,  200;  Belle  de  Fon- 
tenay,  184;  Belle  d'Orleans, 
184;  Black  Diamond,  152; 
Brackett's  No.  101,  158;  Brin- 
ckle's  Orange,  193;  Burley, 
196;  Butler,  152;  Carpenter's 


406 


Index 


No.  2,  186;  Chili  Monthly, 
202;  Collinsville  Miami,  158; 
Columbian,  175, 202;Conover, 
181;  Cornwall's  Prolific,  178; 
Cuthbert,  175,  202;  Doolittle's 
red-flavored  black-cap,  185; 
Double-bearing  Yellow,  202; 
Dwinelle,  178;  English  Black, 
178;  English  Brown,  195; 
English  Purple,  183,  195; 
English  Red,  177,  195;  Eng- 
lish Red-cane,  183;  Erie,  186; 
Extra  Late,  155;  False  Red- 
cane,  183;  Farnsworth,  153; 
Filby,  184;  Frambosier  a 
Gros  Fruit,  196;  Frambosier 
Couleur  de  Chair,  184;  Garden 
Raspberry,  195;  Golden  Cap, 
150;  Great  Western,  155; 
Gregg,  165;  Griesa,  179;  Hark- 
ness,  156;  Herbert,  202;  Hoos- 
ier  Mammoth,  155;  Hunts- 
ville,  195;  Johnston's  Sweet, 
157;  Joslyn,  152;  June,  202; 
Kansas,  165;  Kentucky,  153; 
Kelsey,  178;  Kirtland,  184; 
Knevett's  Antwerp,  196; 
Large  Orange,  197;  Late  Cane, 
182;  Late  Liberian,  182;  Lord 
Exmouth,  178;  Lotta,  165; 
Loudon,  202;  Mammoth  Clus- 
ter, 158;  Marlboro,  175,  202; 
Mason's  Seedling  Grape,  186; 
Melott's  Favorite,  192;  Mer- 
veille  de  Quatre  Saisons,  185; 
MiUs  No.  7,  161;  Monthly 
black-cap,  160;  Naomi,  185; 


Negley,  154;  Nemaha,  165; 
New  French,  178;  New  Red 
Antwerp,  187;  North  River 
Antwerp,  187;  October  Red, 
185;  October  Yellow,  185; 
Ohio,  165;  Ohta,  202;  Old 
English  YeUow,  183;  Older, 
165;  Orange  King,  177;  Per- 
petual-bearing, 182;  Plum 
Farmer,  165;  Progress,  161; 
Prosser,  179;  Queen  of  the 
Market,  181;  Quinby's  Favor- 
ite, 181;  Ranere,  202;  Red 
Prolific,  195;  Red  Thornless, 
200;  Rivers'  New  Monthly, 
189;  Royal  Purple,  202;  St. 
Regis,  196;  Shaffer,  175;  Shaf- 
fer's Sister,  192;  Smith's  Iron- 
clad, 156;  Southern  Red,  200; 
Southern  Thornless,  200;  Stay- 
man's  No.  5,  193;  Sunbeam, 
202;  Susqueco,  178;  Twice- 
bearing,  182,  183;  Victor,  200; 
Waters'  Success,  164;  Western 
Triumph,  155;  White  Antwerp, 
202;  White  Four-seasons,  185; 
White  Thimbleberry,  150; 
White  Transparent,  199;  Wil- 
mington, 178;  Yellow  Canada, 
177;  Yellow  Cap,  150. 
Raspberry  beetle,  American, 
238. 

—  blue-stem,  257. 

—  cane-blight,  254. 

—  cane-borer,  243. 

—  cane-maggot,  238. 

—  Chinese,  137,  141. 


Index 


407 


Raspberry  geometer,  248. 
-  horntail,  247. 

—  leaf-roller,  249. 

—  saw-fly,  245. 

—  spur-blight,  256. 

—  web-worm,  247. 
Recommended  varieties  of  black- 
berries and  dewberries,  231. 

black-caps,  165. 

currants,  315. 

gooseberries,  331. 

red     and     hybrid     rasp- 
berries, 202. 
Records,  picking,  29. 
Red-necked  cane-borer,  239. 
Red    and    hybrid    raspberries, 

alphabetical  list  of  varieties, 

176. 
recommended      varieties, 

202. 
Red  raspberries,  41. 

autumn  fruiting,  50. 

botanical  characters,  165. 

duration  of  plantations,  54. 

exposure  for,  42. 

fertilizers,  43. 

hardiness  of,  56. 

harvesting,  53. 

•  history,  170. 

marketing,  53. 

planting,  46. 

pollination,  47. 

profits,  58. 

propagation  of,  45. 

pruning,  48. 

site,  42. 

soil,  41. 


Red  raspberries,  tillage,  48. 

uses,  53. 

yields,  57. 

Red  rust,  250. 

Red-spider,  246. 

Rhagoletis  pomonella,  380. 

Rhagoletis  ribicola,  341. 

Ribes  acerifolium,  805;  R.  alpes- 
tre,  333;  R.  alpinum,  333; 
R.  americanum,  300;  R.  amic- 
tum,  333;  R.  aureum,  301,  331; 
R.  calif ornicum,  333;  R.  Cynos- 
bati,  316;  R.  fasciculatum, 
333;  R.  flwidum,  300;  R.  Gor- 
donianum,  333;  Ribes  Grossu- 
laria,  316;  R.  hirtellum,  316, 
317;  R.  inerme,  317;  R.  irrig- 
uum,  317;  R.  Lobbii,  333; 
R.  missouriense,  317;  R.  ni- 
grum,  299;  R.  odoratum,  301, 
331;  R.  oxyacanthoides,  316, 
317;  R.  rubrum,  299;  R.  san- 
guineum,  331;  R.  setosum,  217; 
R.  speciosum,  331;  R.  triste, 
299;  Ribes  vulgare,  299;  R. 
vulgare,  var.  macrocarpum,  299. 

Root-borer,  giant,  249. 

Root-cuttings,  blackberry,  92. 

—  huckleberry,  371. 

Rose  chafer,  241. 

Rubus  allegheniensis,  204;  R. 
arcticus,  142;  R.  argutus,  204; 
R.  Bailey  anus,  211;  R.  cana- 
densis,  205,  210;  R.  cratcegifo- 
lius,  137,  141;  R.  cuneifolius, 
205;  R.  delicwsus,  139;  R. 
Enslenii,  211;  R.  floridus,  204; 


408 


Index 


R.  frondosus,  204;  R.  Henryi, 
145;  R.  Hoffmeisteriana,  137; 
R.  Idaeus,  165,  174;  R.  ille- 
cebrosus,  135;  R.  invisus,  211; 
R.  laciniatus,  102,  144;  R. 
leucodermis,  148;  R.  Mill- 
spaughii,  205;  R.  neglectus, 
59,  168;  R.  neglectus,  hybrid 
origin,  39;  R.  nutkanus,  139; 
R.  occidentalis,  148;  jR.  odora- 
tus,  138;  #.  palmatus,  134; 
jR.  parviflorus,  138;  72.  phosni- 
colasius,  136,  142;  E.  procum- 
bens,  210;  #.  roscefolius,  135; 
.R.  sorbifolius,  135;  #.  specta- 
bilis,  143;  #.  strigosus,  165, 
174;  #.  £n/idws,  145;  .R.  frmaZ- 
is,  211;  E.  vtffosws,  210;  #". 
villosus,  var.  humifusus,  211; 
#.  vitifolius,  131,  211;  72. 
Xanthocarpus,  138. 

Salmon-berry,  139,  143. 
Sand-cherry,  392. 

—  fruiting  qualities,  393. 

—  ornamental  qualities,  394. 
San  Jose  scale,  336. 
Saw-fly,  raspberry,  245. 
Scale  insects,  249. 
Scuffle-hoe,  16. 

Seedlings,  currant,  behavior  of, 

303. 

Seeds,  growing  plants  from,  26. 
Septoria  Ribis,  351. 
Septoria  RuU,  257. 
Service  berry,  western,  386. 
iSesia  tipuliformis,  338. 


Setting  plants,  13. 

Shad  Bush,  385,  386. 

Shade  for  red  raspberries,  47. 

Shepherdia  argentea,  355. 

Site,  5. 

Site  for  red  raspberries,  42. 

Small  fruits,  acreage,  2. 

Soil,  5. 

Soil  acidity.  7. 

Soil  for  blackberries,  88. 

—  black-caps,  60. 

currants,  268. 

dewberries,  124. 

gooseberries,  283. 

—  red  raspberries,  41. 
Span-worm,  gooseberry,  339. 
Sphcerotheca  mors-uvae,  348. 
Spur-blight,  raspberry,  256. 
Stable-manure,  63. 
Staking,  19. 

Staking  red  raspberries,  51. 
Stem-girdler,  currant,  345. 
Stem-miner,  groselle,  346. 
Strawberry-raspberry,  135. 
Strawberry  weevil,  244. 

Tangleberry,  376. 

Tarnished  plant-bug,  248. 

Tetranychus  bimaculatus,  246. 

Thimbleberry,  138. 

Thinning,  28. 

Tillage,  14. 

—  for  blackberries,  97. 

black-caps,  69. 

currants,  271. 

dewberries,  126. 

gooseberries,  288. 


Index 


409 


Tillage  of  red  raspberries,  48. 

Tillage  tools,  16. 

Tmetocera  ocellana,  236. 

Toadstools,  262. 

Tools  for  putting  down  black- 
cap tips,  65. 

Tools,  tillage,  16. 

Training  dewberries,  127. 

Training  gooseberries,  291. 

Tree  cranberry,  387. 

Tree-cricket,  233. 

Trellis  for  blackberries,  101. 
—  dewberries,  127. 

-  hinged,  25. 

Trellising,  19. 

—  red  raspberries,  51. 

Trioza  tripunctata,  234. 

Uses  of  blackberries,  103. 

currants,  275. 

gooseberries,  293. 

red  raspberries,  53. 

Vaccinium,  375. 

Vaccinium  canadense,  377;  V. 
corymbosum,  379;  V.  penn- 
sylvanicum,  377;  V.  va- 
cillans,  379. 

Varieties  of  blackberries  and  dew- 
berries, 203,  214. 


Varieties   of    black    raspberries, 
150. 

currants,  299. 

black,  312. 

red  and  white,  304. 

gooseberries,  316. 

raspberries,  147. 

black,  150. 

• —  red  and  hybrid,  176. 

Viburnum  americanum,  388. 
Viburnum  opulus,  388. 

Walnut  scale,  347. 
Waterton,  quoted,  207. 
Webworm,  raspberry,  247. 
Western  dewberries,  131. 
Wine,  blackberry,  106. 
Wineberry,  136,  142. 
Winter-kiUing,  20. 
Winter  protection,  21. 
Wurzelkropf,  260. 

Yellows,  raspberry,  261. 
Yield  of  blackberries,  111. 

black-caps,  84. 

currants,  279. 

dewberries,  130. 

gooseberries,  295. 

red  raspberries,  57. 

Zophodia  grossularice,  337. 


Printed  in  the  United  States  of  America 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY, 
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1923 


lOm-12,'23 


10019 


724  i 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


